Immobilization of Norwegian Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and Svalbard Reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus) with Medetomidine and Medetomidine-Ketamine and Reversal of Immobilization with Atipamezole

The sedative action of medetomidine (-ketamine) was studied in 12 captive Norwegian semidomesticated reindeer (NR), including 4 newborn calves, and in 7 free-living Svalbard reindeer (SR). Medetomidine, with or without ketamine, caused effective, reliable immobilization in NR. Doses of 50–200 µg/kg medetomidine alone or 30-125 µg/kg medetomidine combined with ⩾ 300 µg/kg ketamine induced complete immobilization, good muscle relaxation and persistent, deep sedation with little respiratory depression in NR; SR required higher doses. Atipamezole successfully antagonized medetomidine (-ketamine) resulting in rapid and persistent reversal of immobilization in all cases (NR and SR). Both medetomidine and atipamezole had wide safety margins and no conspicuous lasting side effects after reversal.     

Seasonal changes in the cecal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus)

The dominant cecal bacteria in the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and cecal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability is good, and in winter, when it is very poor. In summer the total culturable viable bacterial population was (8.9 +/- 5.3) X 10(8) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (1.5 +/- 0.7) X 10(8) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. Of the dominant species of cultured bacteria, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 23% in summer and 18% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% in summer and 5% in winter. Bacteroides ruminicola represented 10% in summer and 26% in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportion of the viable population showing the following activities was as follows: fiber digestion, 36 and 48%; cellulolysis, 10 and 6%; xylanolysis, 33 and 48%; and starch utilization, 77 and 71%. The most abundant cellulolytic species in summer was Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, representing 62% of the total cellulolytic population, and in winter it was Ruminococcus albus, representing 80% of the total cellulolytic population. The most abundant xylanolytic species in summer was Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, and in winter it was Bacteroides ruminicola, representing 59 and 54% of the xylanolytic isolates in summer and winter, respectively. The cecal bacterial of the Svalbard reindeer have the ability to digest starch and the major structural carbohydrates of the diet that are not digested in the rumen. The cecum in these animals has the potential to contribute very substantially to the digestion of the available plant material in both summer and winter.     

Seasonal changes in the ruminal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus)

The dominant rumen bacteria in high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and ruminal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability are good, and in winter, when they are poor. In summer the total cultured viable population density was (2.09 +/- 1.26) X 10(10) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (0.36 +/- 0.29) X 10(10) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. On culture, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 22% of the bacterial population in summer and 30% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% of the bacterial population in summer but only 4% in winter. Methanogenic bacteria were present at 10(4) cells ml-1 in summer and 10(7) cells ml-1 in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportions of the viable population showing the following activities were as follows: starch utilization, 68 and 63%; fiber digestion, 31 and 74%; cellulolysis, 15 and 35%; xylanolysis, 30 and 58%; proteolysis, 51 and 28%; ureolysis, 40 and 54%; and lactate utilization, 13 and 4%. The principal cellulolytic bacterium was B. fibrisolvens, which represented 66 and 52% of the cellulolytic population in summer and winter, respectively. The results indicate that the microflora of the rumen of Svalbard reindeer is highly effective in fiber digestion and nitrogen metabolism, allowing the animals to survive under the austere nutritional conditions typical of their high-arctic habitat.     

Sexual dimorphism in the pelvic bones of Svalbard reindeer, Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus

The determination of sex of carcasses of reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) is complicated because both sexes normally carry antlers. Growth curves of males and females diverge sufficiently so that the length of long bones can often indicate the sex of a carcass if its age at death is known; results, however, are not always conclusive. Pronounced sexual dimorphism was found in the breadth of the ventro-medial border (rim) of the acetabulum of adult Svalbard reindeer. Measurement of the rim of the acetabulum thus provides a quick and conclusive means for determining the sex of carcasses of these animals. Similar results have been found in several other species of ungulates. Reasons for the dimorphism and for the non-normal distribution of the data for both sexes in reindeer are discussed.     

Seasonal changes in the ruminal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus).

The dominant rumen bacteria in high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and ruminal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability are good, and in winter, when they are poor. In summer the total cultured viable population density was (2.09 +/- 1.26) X 10(10) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (0.36 +/- 0.29) X 10(10) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. On culture, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 22% of the bacterial population in summer and 30% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% of the bacterial population in summer but only 4% in winter. Methanogenic bacteria were present at 10(4) cells ml-1 in summer and 10(7) cells ml-1 in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportions of the viable population showing the following activities were as follows: starch utilization, 68 and 63%; fiber digestion, 31 and 74%; cellulolysis, 15 and 35%; xylanolysis, 30 and 58%; proteolysis, 51 and 28%; ureolysis, 40 and 54%; and lactate utilization, 13 and 4%. The principal cellulolytic bacterium was B. fibrisolvens, which represented 66 and 52% of the cellulolytic population in summer and winter, respectively. The results indicate that the microflora of the rumen of Svalbard reindeer is highly effective in fiber digestion and nitrogen metabolism, allowing the animals to survive under the austere nutritional conditions typical of their high-arctic habitat.     

Seasonal changes in the cecal microflora of the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus).

The dominant cecal bacteria in the high-arctic Svalbard reindeer were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and cecal pH was determined in summer, when food quality and availability is good, and in winter, when it is very poor. In summer the total culturable viable bacterial population was (8.9 +/- 5.3) X 10(8) cells ml-1, whereas in winter it was (1.5 +/- 0.7) X 10(8) cells ml-1, representing a decrease to 17% of the summer population density. Of the dominant species of cultured bacteria, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens represented 23% in summer and 18% in winter. Streptococcus bovis represented 17% in summer and 5% in winter. Bacteroides ruminicola represented 10% in summer and 26% in winter. In summer and winter, respectively, the proportion of the viable population showing the following activities was as follows: fiber digestion, 36 and 48%; cellulolysis, 10 and 6%; xylanolysis, 33 and 48%; and starch utilization, 77 and 71%. The most abundant cellulolytic species in summer was Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, representing 62% of the total cellulolytic population, and in winter it was Ruminococcus albus, representing 80% of the total cellulolytic population. The most abundant xylanolytic species in summer was Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, and in winter it was Bacteroides ruminicola, representing 59 and 54% of the xylanolytic isolates in summer and winter, respectively. The cecal bacterial of the Svalbard reindeer have the ability to digest starch and the major structural carbohydrates of the diet that are not digested in the rumen. The cecum in these animals has the potential to contribute very substantially to the digestion of the available plant material in both summer and winter.     

Relation Between Testosterone Levels in Serum and Proteolytic Activity in the Neck Muscles of the Norwegian Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

The characteristic hypertrophying of the male reindeer neck muscles during the rutting period, which coincides with the rise in serum testosterone levels, is found to be accompanied by a significant decrease in lysosomal proteolytic activity of the neck muscle cells. Conversely, during the period of neck muscle involution following the rapid decline in serum testosterone after the rut, a marked increase in neck muscle proteolytic activity is found. These changes in lysosomal activity do not parallel the changes in feed consumption and nutritional stage of the animals during the rutting period. The lysosomal proteolytic activity of the male reindeer neck muscles thus may be, at least partly, under the control of sex steroid hormones.     

High Female Mortality Resulting in Herd Collapse in Free-Ranging Domesticated Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Sweden

Reindeer herding in Sweden is a form of pastoralism practised by the indigenous Sámi population. The economy is mainly based on meat production. Herd size is generally regulated by harvest in order not to overuse grazing ranges and keep a productive herd. Nonetheless, herd growth and room for harvest is currently small in many areas. Negative herd growth and low harvest rate were observed in one of two herds in a reindeer herding community in Central Sweden. The herds (A and B) used the same ranges from April until the autumn gathering in October–December, but were separated on different ranges over winter. Analyses of capture-recapture for 723 adult female reindeer over five years (2007–2012) revealed high annual losses (7.1% and 18.4%, for herd A and B respectively). A continuing decline in the total reindeer number in herd B demonstrated an inability to maintain the herd size in spite of a very small harvest. An estimated breakpoint for when herd size cannot be kept stable confirmed that the observed female mortality rate in herd B represented a state of herd collapse. Lower calving success in herd B compared to A indicated differences in winter foraging conditions. However, we found only minor differences in animal body condition between the herds in autumn. We found no evidence that a lower autumn body mass generally increased the risk for a female of dying from one autumn to the next. We conclude that the prime driver of the on-going collapse of herd B is not high animal density or poor body condition. Accidents or disease seem unlikely as major causes of mortality. Predation, primarily by lynx and wolverine, appears to be the most plausible reason for the high female mortality and state of collapse in the studied reindeer herding community.     

Plasma urea, creatinine, and urea: creatinine ratio in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and in Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) during defined feeding conditions and in the field.

Variation in plasma urea and creatinine concentration and plasma urea:creatinine ratio (U:C) were studied in semidomestic free-ranging reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) on the Norwegian mainland, in wild Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus), and in captive reindeer maintained either on a lichen-based diet or a protein-rich concentrate to investigate whether these parameters could be used as indicators of the nutritional status of reindeer. In the mainland animals, plasma creatinine concentration was high in winter and early spring and decreased by two-thirds toward the summer. The overall range in mean plasma creatinine concentration (+/-SE) was from 90+/-1.26 to 280+/-2.88 micromol/L. Mean plasma urea concentration (+/-SE) varied from 2.46+/-0.10 in winter up to 17.44+/-0.29 mmol/L in summer and autumn. Month of sampling explained 65% and 90% of the variation in plasma urea and creatinine concentrations, respectively, indicating that seasonality in the diet had the greatest influence on these parameters. Reindeer given lichens as the only feed showed an increase in plasma creatinine and a decrease in plasma urea concentration. Food restriction caused a temporary elevation in urea level but had no significant effect on plasma creatinine concentration. The slight effect of energy intake on urea and creatinine levels was supported by the fact that severe undernutrition in the Svalbard reindeer population had only a small effect on plasma urea and creatinine levels. Protein-rich pellet feed increased plasma urea from around 3 mmol/L to above 10 mmol/L and reduced creatinine concentrations to less than 100 micromol/L, suggesting that the protein content of forage is an important determinant of these blood parameters. Mean U:C ratio (+/-SE) in plasma varied from 8.9+/-0.28 to 120.8+/-1.88. Ratios above 20 appeared when protein intake was low and energy intake was restricted or when protein intake was high. Low ratios occurred when protein intake was low but energy intake adequate. Plasma urea and creatinine concentrations and the U:C ratio showed complex dynamics that were affected by both season and the protein and feed intake. We conclude that they appear to be difficult to interpret as single measures of nutritional status of reindeer.     

Size and composition of the wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus population in the Southeast Svalbard Nature Reserve

Alendal, E., de Bie, S. and van Wieren, S. E. 1979. Size and composition of the wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus population in the Southeast Svalbard Nature Reserve. Holarct. Ecol. 2: 101-107. In the summer of 1977 we studied the reindeer population on the islands Barentsøya and Edgeøya in the eastern part of the Svalbard archipelago. A total of 1374 reindeer were observed: 326 animals in the western parts of Barentsøya and 1048 animals on Edgeøya. Considering those parts of Edgeøya which were not visited, the total number of reindeer on Edgeøya was estimated at 1300 animals. The total number of reindeer was lower than in previous years. The decline probably was due to severe winter conditions in 1975/1976 and 1976/1977 confirmed by the fact that many carcasses and few yearlings were observed. Nearly all reindeer occurred on the coastal plains and in the valleys. These areas have the relatively richest vegetation. The average recruitment of the total population (counted) was 15.9%. The adult sex ratio was in favour of females: 59% females versus 41% males. There were differences both in the recruitment and in the adult sex ratio between three distinct areas on Edgeøya and between two on Barentsøya. These differences may be due to dissimilarities in food quality and feeding conditions caused by climate, and by small exchange of reindeer between the areas. The high frequency of shed male antlers on Frankenhalvøya and Talaveraflya, north and south coast of Barentsøya respectively, indicates that these areas belong to the wintering grounds of reindeer on this island. Concentrations of shed female antlers on Barentsøya were less pronounced. The highest frequency was in the areas Sjodalen and Kvistdalen-Talaveraflya in the northwest and south respectively. Females may use these areas as late wintering grounds and possibly as calving areas. The average group size was 2.2 and the aggregation index 3.1. Seventytwo per cent of all groups, containing 48% of all reindeer, fell into group size 1 and 2. Males mostly were observed alone or together with one other animal. Females with calves most frequently occurred in groups of 2 and 4 animals.     

Bacteria in the small intestine of lichen-fed Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

It has been suggested that lactic acid-producing bacteria may protect the epithelium of the mammalian gastrointestinal tract from pathogenic micro-organisms. Consistent with this, bacteria isolated from the mucosa of the small intestine of five lichenfed, semi-domesticated reindeer included mainly Streptococcus spp. However, the population densities of bacteria associated with the mucosa and in the intestinal contents were generally low and there was a large amount of variation both between animals and with site of sampling. It therefore seems unlikely that Streptococcus spp. are essential for the function of the small intestine in captive reindeer, and their role here remains uncertain.     

The collection and examination of semen of the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

Semen was collected from all the mature Reindeer bulls (9) in the Glenmore herd, both normal and vasectomized. Nineteen samples of semen were obtained. Reindeer semen is a viscous fluid, generally amber in colour: after vasectomy its viscosity is much lower. The mean volume of the ejaculates was 0–5 ml. and mean sperm density 467 × 10⁴ spermatozoa. Motility was low in comparison with other mammals and the proportion of eosinophilic spermatozoa was high (74.5%). Other determinations included measurements of the size of unstained spermatozoa, and of fructose and citric acid concentration in the semen.     

The Effect of Blood Sampling on Plasma Cortisol in Female Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L)

A major response of the body to stress is the secretion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) by the adenohypophysis resulting in increased blood Cortisol levels. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) controls the release of ACTH, mediating a direct effect at the level of the pituitary (Guillame et al. 1992). An animal's perception of a stressful event and the resulting increase in Cortisol production can be influenced by previous experience, season, time of day, and the animal's sex, age, and condition (Dantzer & Mormède 1983, Moberg 1985).     

Characterisation of parapoxviruses isolated from Norwegian semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Background

We examined the association and interaction between maternal viral load and antibodies in vertical transmission of HIV in a non-randomized prospective study of 43 HIV-1 infected pregnant women who attended the San Juan City Hospital, Puerto Rico, and their 45 newborn infants. The women and infants received antiretroviral therapy.

Methods

A nested PCR assay of the HIV-1 envelope V3 region and infant PBMC culture were performed to determine HIV status of the infants. Maternal and infant plasma were tested for HIV neutralization or enhancement in monocyte-derived macrophages.

Results

Twelve (26.7%) infants were positive by the HIV V3 PCR assay and 3 of the 12 were also positive by culture. There was a trend of agreement between high maternal viral load and HIV transmission by multivariate analysis (OR = 2.5, CI = 0.92, p = 0.0681). Both maternal and infant plasma significantly (p = 0.001 for both) reduced HIV replication at 10^-1 dilution compared with HIV negative plasma. Infant plasma neutralized HIV (p = 0.001) at 10^-2 dilution but maternal plasma lost neutralizing effect at this dilution. At 10^-3 dilution both maternal and infant plasma increased virus replication above that obtained with HIV negative plasma but only the increase by maternal plasma was statistically significant (p = 0.005). There were good agreements in enhancing activity in plasma between mother-infant pairs, but there was no significant association between HIV enhancement by maternal plasma and vertical transmission.

Conclusion

Although not statistically significant, the trend of association between maternal viral load and maternal-infant transmission of HIV supports the finding that viral load is a predictor of maternal-infant transmission. Both maternal and infant plasma neutralized HIV at low dilution and enhanced virus replication at high dilution. The antiretroviral treatments that the women received and the small sample size may have contributed to the lack of association between HIV enhancement by maternal plasma and vertical transmission.     

Evidence of Reciprocal Allonursing in Reindeer,Rangifer tarandus

The nursing of non‐offspring is referred to as allonursing. Reciprocity is a hypothesized cause of allonursing, but previous studies have not strongly supported or found no evidence in support for this hypothesis. Biological market theory was applied to 25 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) does and their calves to investigate allonursing reciprocity across bouts and within dyads and assess the diversity of allonursing partners. We also investigated whether variation in allonursing would be associated to relatedness within dyads. We recorded both the occurrence and the duration of 1027 successful allonursing solicitations. All does allonursed, and only three of the 25 calves were not observed being allonursed. Throughout the study, 234 allonursing dyadic pairs were observed. Does allonursed the calves of several does, but allonursing was not distributed evenly among all potential partners. Twenty does were members of at least 1 dyad with a high degree of reciprocity based on the number of allonursing bouts exchanged within the dyad. We found evidence of both relative and absolute allonursing reciprocity at the group level. Across bouts and within dyads, the reciprocal allonursing indexes varied greatly both for frequency and for duration, with an average tendency towards unidirectionality. Evidence of strong reciprocity within dyads was found in 32 dyads for number of allonursing bouts and in 25 dyads for duration of allonursing bouts. Across bouts and within dyads, the number of allonursing bouts received was not influenced by relatedness, allonursing bouts given or absolute rank difference. Allonursing was not interchanged for rank‐related benefits. Our results provide evidence of reciprocal allonursing at the group level, across bouts and within dyads, and reciprocal allonursing among chosen partners. Our results point to the usefulness of applying the biological market theory to allonursing and of considering allonursing as a tradable commodity, traded for itself, among chosen partners.     

The effect of cloprostenol in non-pregnant and pregnant Norwegian semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L)

Two non-pregnant and five pregnant 1.5-year-old semi-domestic reindeer were used to study the effect of cloprostenol given during the luteal phase of the oestrous cycle, or at two stages of pregnancy (early December, n = 3, and mid-January, n = 2). Blood samples were collected at 3-hourly intervals from immediately prior to treatment until 6–8 days after treatment, after which blood samples were collected every second day. Prior to each blood collection, the animals were observed for signs of oestrus. Plasma progesterone, oestradiol-17β, luteinizing hormone (LH) and 15-ketodihydro-PGF_2α were analyzed to characterize variations in ovarian function.Treatment with cloprostenol resulted in an immediate and rapid decrease in plasma progesterone concentrations in all treated animals. The fall in plasma progesterone was associated with increase in 15-ketodihydro-PGF_2α. Oestrus, indicated by standing behaviour, was observed on three out of four occasions in the two non-pregnant animals. The average duration of standing behaviour (oestrus) was 27 h (range: 24–30 h).Of the pregnant females that were treated with cloprostenol in the beginning of December (n = 3), two aborted between 72 and 96 h after treatment. One of these developed pyometra after abortion. In one female the foetus died 2 days after treatment, but was retained within the uterus until slaughter 2.5 months later. One of the two females that were treated in mid-January aborted between 62–65 h after injection. The other female retained a live foetus until slaughter in February. There were few endocrinological differences between animals that aborted and those that did not, though aborting animals had lower progesterone concentrations for a longer period of time after treatment.It was concluded that cloprostenol can be used during the luteal phase of the oestrous cycle to induce luteolysis and oestrus. When given during pregnancy, cloprostenol can induce abortion, though undesired side effects make it inappropriate for practical use.