Prevalence of Echinococcosis in Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) in Sweden

In Sweden echinococcosis is uncommon in domestic animals. In reindeer in the most northern part of the country echinococcosis was found. Of 1453 pairs of lungs, 23 pairs (1.6 %) were infected with hydatid cysts. These were of two types: typical well-developed hydatid cysts, which were found in nine of the 23 infected lungs, and collapsed hydatid cysts, which were found in 13 of the lungs. In only one lung pair both types of cysts were seen.     

Polymorphism of the mtDNA control region in wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus (Mammalia: Artioodactyla) from the European part of Russia

Genetic diversity of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) inhabiting the European part of Russia, including Komi Republic, Arkhangelsk oblast, Murmansk oblast, and the Republic of Karelia was characterized using sequence polymorphism of the mtDNA control region. Despite of currently low population number of wild reindeer, they were characterized by a high level of genetic diversity (?? = 0.018; H = 0.872 to 0.914). Phylogenetic analysis showed close relationships between European reindeer and wild reindeer of Siberia. In reindeer from Murmansk oblast a haplotype in common with the wild reindeer form Southwestern Norway was described. The reindeer sample examined contained no haplotypes earlier described for the reindeer of Central Norway. It is suggested that in recent past wild reindeer from the European north of Russia formed one population with the reindeer from the north of the Asian part of Eurasia.     

Ultrastructure of the cysts of Sarcocystis grueneri from cardiac muscle of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Cysts of Sarcocystis grueneri from cardiac muscle of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Norway were examined by transmission electron microscopy. The limiting unit membrane of the cyst proper formed regularly spaced invaginations into the cyst at numerous sites coinciding with interruptions in the underlying osmiophilic layer. The primary cyst wall formed numerous strip-like, sinuous protrusions, which were 30-40 nm thick, 150-300 nm wide and up to 4.5 microns long, and were running in parallel with the surface of the cyst. Generally the protrusions were arranged in several closely spaced layers compressed against the cyst. The nature and arrangement of the protrusions render them undetectable by light microscopy. Cyst ground substance divided the interior of the cyst into compartments containing typical sarcosporidian metrocytes and cystozoites. The cysts of S. grueneri from reindeer were ultrastructurally similar to cysts reported from red deer, roe deer and moose by other workers. The possibility that these cervids are hosts for a common Sarcocystis species is discussed.     

Sarcocystis Infection in Wild Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) From Hardangervidda in Southern Norway: with a Description of The Cysts of Sarcocystis Hardangeri N. Sp.

Fresh preparations of micro-isolated sarcosysts from skeletal muscle of 5 wild reindeer were examined by light microscopy. Slender, spindelshaped cysts measuring 821 × 60 µm, and having short knob-like cyst wall protrusions were found in all animals. In 1 animal cysts different in structure from the cysts of the 4 previously known Sarcocystis spp. of reindeer were found, These cysts are considered to be cysts of a new Sarcocystis sp. of reindeer, for which the name Sarcocystis hardangeri has been proposed. S. hardangeri n. sp. had macroscopic, ovoid to cylindrical cysts measuring 1667 (900–2570) × 819 (450–1575) µm. The cysts were surrounded by a 8–10 µm thick layer of fibrillar material. After removal of this layer, relatively few and irregularly spaced, slanting protrusions became visible. The 20–30 µm long protrusions were tongue-like, and were lying close to the surface of the cyst. Cysts of S. grueneri, S. rangiferi and S. tarandi were not demonstrated in the 5 wild reindeer examined.     

Chemical composition of reindeer forage plants in Svalbard and Norway

Several of the most important reindeer forage plants in Svalbard were analysed for content of minerals (Na, K, P, Ca, Mg, S, Cl, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo and Co) and for content of ash, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extracts and nitrogen free extracts. Some forage plants were also examined in in vitro digestibility trials. The results were compared with results from similar analyses of alpine mountain plants from southern Norway. Also freshly voided fecal samples were analysed for the same components as the forage plants.
The Svalbard vegetation had a higher content of Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, Fe and Co, than similar plants from Southern Norway. The content of other elements examined seemed to be more equal in Norway and on Svalbard. Within the Svalbard area plants growing in limestone areas had the highest content of calcium and magnesium. Also plants growing on manured soil below bird cliffs appeared to have high nutritional value. It is furthermore concluded that the closeness to the sea as well as the occurrence of several plants with high mineral content, gave the Svalbard reindeer the possibility to further improve their mineral balance compared with continental reindeer. Also the dietary shift from lichens as a major dietary component in Norway, to mosses on Svalbard, may increase mineral intake, but may also have an inferior effect on digestibility.
Although balance experiments and carcass analyses of minerals in Svalbard reindeer are missing, it is concluded that Svalbard reindeer apparently had adequate intake of most mineral elements. In spite of low standing biomass of reindeer forage plants, the quality of the vegetation seemed to compare favourably with continental reindeer pasture.     

Giardia duodenalis cysts isolated from wild moose and reindeer in Norway: genetic characterization by PCR-rflp and sequence analysis at two genes

There are few genotyping studies of Giardia duodenalis isolates from cervid hosts, although a previous study suggested that cervids may be a source of infection for humans and cattle. Giardia duodenalis isolates collected from wild moose (Alces alces) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Norway during 2002 and 2003 were characterized by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fraction length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) at the beta-giardin gene, and sequence analysis at both the beta-giardin and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) genes. All results suggested that these isolates (n=25) belonged to assemblage A. Three different restriction patterns were obtained with PCR-RFLP, one of which has previously been associated with assemblage A. At the beta-giardin gene, sequences from six reindeer isolates and one moose isolate were identical to a previously published assemblage A sequence from G. duodenalis cysts isolated from dairy calves. The other 10 moose isolates could be divided into five groups, with between two and 14 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the published genotype A2. At the gdh gene, three different sequences were obtained, differing from each other by between one and 15 SNPs and which have all been previously published as genotype A1, but with different specific hosts. Grouping of the isolates based on the sequences from both genes gave complex results; whereas all the G. duodenalis isolates from reindeer grouped together, two moose isolates, which had identical sequences at the beta-giardin gene, had sequences that differed from each other by 15 SNPs at the gdh gene. The results of these studies, together with the large Norwegian populations of these cervids and the amount of fecal matter they produce, indicate that moose and reindeer may be significant reservoirs of G. duodenalis infection in Norway, which may be of importance to veterinary and public health.     

Superoxide dismutase and cytochrome oxidase in collapsed lungs: possible role in reexpansion edema

This study examined the effects of lung collapse, a condition that causes relative hypoxia in lung tissues, on superoxide dismutase (SOD), cytochrome oxidase (cyt ox), and pyruvate kinase (py ki) activities in rabbits. Cyanide-insensitive respiration measurements were done in collapsed and contralateral lungs, as an index of intracellular free radical production. Rabbits' right lungs were collapsed for 7 days after which the animals were killed. We found that control rabbit lungs contained approximately 25 SOD units/mg DNA measured with 10(-5) M KCN (total SOD) and approximately 11 SOD units/mg DNA measured with 10(-3) M KCN (mitochondrial or MnSOD). Right lung collapse caused a 25% decrease in mitochondrial SOD activity after 7 days (P less than 0.05), whereas no significant changes occurred in right or left lungs' total SOD activity. In control rabbits cyt ox activity averaged approximately 0.009 mumol ferrocytochrome c.min-1.mg DNA-1. Right lung collapse caused a greater than 40% decrease in cyt ox activity after 7 days of collapse (P less than 0.05), whereas cyt ox activity in contralateral left lungs did not change. Pyruvate kinase activity, a marker for anaerobic glycolysis resulting from tissue hypoxia, increased 49% in collapsed right lungs (P less than 0.01). Cyanide-insensitive respiration was 83% higher in 7 day-collapsed lungs (2.28 +/- 0.66 microliters O2.min-1.g-1) compared with contralateral lungs (1.24 +/- 0.34, P less than 0.05), indicating increased O2-. and H2O2 production in this tissue after homogenization at normoxic PO2 (approximately 150 Torr).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Summer distribution of wild reindeer in relation to human activity and insect stress

We examined the summer distribution of 2,500 wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in southern Norway by eight aerial surveys across 8 years. Most of the reindeer were located at high elevations >1,400 m.a.s.l. (88% of the reindeer in 47% of the area) where insect stress was lower. Within high elevations, reindeer used areas <5.0 km from tourist resorts and major roads and <2.5 km from hiking trails less than expected from availability. A total of 65% of the reindeer were found in high-altitude areas without human development or only including closed maintenance roads, which constituted 21% of the area, likely because these areas gave shelter from both insect stress and human activity. We conclude that wild reindeer appear to select for insect relief areas reaching several kilometers away from human activity if such habitat is available. Infrastructure with associated human activity was found to be avoided in all surveys.     

A new microsporidium from the oyster Ostrea lutaria in New Zealand

Microsporidium rapuae n. sp. (Microsporida) forms cysts within the connective tissue surrounding the gut epithelium of the oyster Ostrea lutaria. Except for encapsulation of the cysts by fibroblasts no pathogenic effects were observed. Each cyst contained a large number of spores possessing long well-developed polar filaments. This is the third Microspora recorded from Bivalvia (Mollusca), and the first which does not belong to the family Chytridiopsidae (Minisporida).     

Antibodies to ruminant alpha-herpesviruses and pestiviruses in Norwegian cervids

A serologic survey revealed that Norwegian populations of free-ranging reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and moose (Alces alces) have been exposed to alpha-herpesviruses and pestiviruses. A total of 3,796 serum samples collected during the period 1993-2000 were tested in a neutralization test for antibodies against bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) or cervid herpesvirus 2 (CerHV-2), and 3,897 samples were tested by a neutralization test and/or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for antibodies against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Antibodies against alpha-herpesvirus were found in 28.5% of reindeer, 3.0% of roe deer, and 0.5% of red deer, while all moose samples were negative. In reindeer, the prevalence of seropositive animals increased with age and was higher in males than females. Antibodies against BVDV were detected in 12.3% of roe deer, 4.2% of reindeer, 2.0% of moose and 1.1% of red deer. The results indicate that both alpha-herpesvirus and pestivirus are endemic in reindeer and pestivirus is endemic in roe deer in Norway. The viruses may be specific cervid strains. Seropositive red deer and moose may have become exposed as a result of contact with other ruminant species.     

Tissue "cysts" of Hepatozoon griseisciuri in the grey squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis: the significance of these cysts in species of Hepatozoon

The lungs of a grey squirrel infected with Hepatozoon griseisciuri contained, in addition to typical haemogregarine schizonts, small cysts, each of which contained a single cystozoite. The presence of these cysts, which resemble those recorded in Hepatozoon species in reptiles, suggests that they may be a common feature in all Hepatozoon species and that these parasites may be transmitted by predation as well as by ingestion of infected arthropod vectors.     

The division of production,distribution and consumption in Saami society

The reindeer‐herding Saami, living in the Lapland regions of Sweden, Norway and Finland are an occupational minority within an ethnic one. In this article, the author demonstrates how for the Kautokeino Saami of Norway, the exigencies of contemporary housing, transportation and schooling preclude that the women invest as much time in supervisory herding and in husbandry decisions as was the case a generation ago. However, their rights to individual ownership of reindeer and influence in the management of the household's total resources continue. Despite governmental efforts to transform reindeer herding into a meat‐producing industry integrated with the overarching cash economy, the inputs of women in some families permits it to remain a diversified subsistence economy.     

Pasteurellosis in Reindeer in Northern Norway

Lung inflammations in reindeer caused by Pasteurella multocida were reported from Scandinavian countries already at the beginning of this century. Several outbreaks have been recorded in reindeer herds in Norway. Observations made at the fall reindeer slaughtering, and in reindeer herds in Finnmark seem to indicate an endemic state of this infection with subclinical carriers. Predisposing factors and lowered specific immune status may probably play important roles when fatal outbreaks occur.     

Isolation of Neisseria Ovis and a Colesiota Conjunctivae-Like Organism from Cases of Kerato-Conjunctivitis in Reindeer in Northern Norway

Eye inflammation in reindeer seems to be a condition frequently observed in many reindeer herding areas. Bergmann (1912) reported outbreaks of the condition in Scandinavia already at the beginning of this century, and it spread like a contagious disease. The aetiology seems to be complex, as Bergmann found many different kinds of bacteria in his material. In a recent publication, Rehbinder (1970) reported the occurrence of larvae of the reindeer nostril fly (Cephenomyia trompe) in affected eyes. In Norway, eye inflammation in reindeer has also been observed, although outbreaks of the disease seem to be rare.     

Hydatidosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) and their potential role in the epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in Iran

Hydatid cysts were recovered from 35.2% (233/661) of camels (Camelus dromedarius) slaughtered in five different regions of Iran. The degree of prevalence between males (34.4%) and females (36.6%) was not statistically significant. The highest rate of infection (59.3%) was found in the Isfahan region (in the central part of Iran) while the lowest (25.7%) was found in Kerman province. The organ distribution of cysts was 49.4% in lungs alone, 30.0% in both liver and lungs, 14.6% in liver only and 6.0% in other organs. Therefore, the lungs were the predominant sites of the hydatid cyst. The range in the number of cysts was 1-48 in infected animals. The majority of the camels had 1-5 cysts, with 21.9%, 11.6% and 5.6% of infected camels having 6-10, 11-20 and 21 or more cysts respectively. There was a direct relationship between the rate and intensity of infection and host age. The fertility rate of lung cysts (69.7%) was higher than that of liver cysts (58.7%) and other organs (50.0%) whilst the viability rate of protoscoleces of liver fertile cysts (80.3%) was significantly higher than that of lung cysts (55.8%) and other organs (57.1%). The role of camels in the epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in Iran is discussed.     

Genetic polymorphism of the serum transferrins of the northern reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) of northwestern Siberia]

On the basis of the examination of random samples of seven populations of reindeer inhabiting the Montane-Taiga Zone and of nine population inhabiting the Tundra Zone of the Magadan Region 8 alleles of transferrin locus described earlier (TfA, TfC, TfE, TfG, TfH, TfJ, TfK and TfM) were identified and the ninth hitherto unknown allele (TfN) was discovered. Gene concentrations of all these alleles in populations studies were determined. The reindeer of the North-East of Siberia differ in frequencies of Tf alleles from those of Norway and, apparently, also from the reindeer inhabiting the northern regions of the European part of the USSR and from the American caribou. The allele TfK is possibly associated with the resistance of reindeer to necrobacteriosis.     

Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in Fennoscandian reindeer - association with the degree of domestication

To measure the prevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in Fennoscandian reindeer, we examined 2577 serum samples collected between 1993 and 1996 from slaughtered reindeer from Finnmark county, Norway, and from several locations in Finland. The overall prevalence in this sample was 0.9%, and the titres of the seropositives in the Direct Agglutination Test (DAT) were between 1:40 and 1:162000. Logistic regression associated seropositivity with the age of the animal, the odds ratio (OR) of adults was four when compared with calves. Seropositivity was also positively associated with corral feeding, which was used in the analysis as an indicator of domestication. No significant association was found with sex, or the frost sum of the pasture area.     

Novel Rumen Bacterial Diversity in Two Geographically Separated Sub-Species of Reindeer

Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) live under austere nutritional conditions on the high-arctic archipelago of Svalbard, while semi-domesticated Norwegian reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) migrate between lush coastal summer pastures and inland winter pastures with lichens on mainland Norway. Svalbard reindeer are known to have high rumen concentrations of cellulolytic bacteria, ranging from 15% of the viable population in summer to 35% in winter, compared to only 2.5% in Norwegian reindeer. Their rumen bacterial diversity was investigated through comparative analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences (∼1.5 kb in length) generated from clone libraries (n = 121) and bacterial isolates (n = 51). LIBSHUFF comparisons of the composition of the two 16S rRNA libraries from Norwegian reindeer showed a significant effect of artificial feeding compared to natural pasture, but failed to yield significant differences between libraries from Norwegian reindeer and Svalbard reindeer. The combined sequences from reindeer were not significantly different from those reported in wild Thompson’s gazelle in Kenya but did differ from those reported in domestic cattle in Japan. A total of 90 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified by employing a criterion of 97% similarity, while the Chao1 index estimated the reindeer bacterial rumen population richness at 698 OTUs. The majority of the clone library sequences (92.5%) represented novel strains with <97% identity to any known sequence in the public database, most of them affiliated with the bacterial phylum Firmicutes (low G+C Gram-positives) related to the order Clostridiales (76.7%), while Gram-negative bacteria in the Bacteriodales (Prevotella–Bacteroides group) contributed to 22.5%. Also, six of the isolates were putatively novel strains, possibly representing new species in the Clostridium subphylum (cluster XIVa), Actinomyces and Butyrivibrio.     

Effects of Hunting on Response Behaviors of Wild Reindeer

ABSTRACT Because wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are hunted in southern Norway, reindeer may perceive all recreationists as threats. Potential adverse effects of hunting on reindeer behavior may be exacerbated by other forms of recreation because the number of skiers and hikers in areas inhabited by reindeer has also increased. The Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell wild reindeer area is used extensively for recreation and tourism. Reindeer hunting was introduced in the area in 1992, and harvest rate has been stable at about 38% of winter herd size. We recorded behavioral responses of reindeer to a person approaching directly on foot or skis during 1992 and again in 2002–2006. Compared to 1992, flight-initiation distance increased and fewer groups assessed the observer before taking flight during 2002–2006. In winter, when reindeer are usually comparably more vigilant than in other seasons, flight-initiation distance increased from only 60 m to 115 m and escape distance decreased from 400 m to 210 m. Neither alert distance, calf carcass weights (23.6 ± 0.7 [SE] kg to 22.4 ± 0.2 kg), nor reindeer herd size (661 ± 73 to 579 ± 15) changed during the 15 years of our study. Reindeer appeared to habituate to the observer because they initiated flight at shorter distances as the number of approaches on the same day increased. In Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell, encounters with a person on foot or skis did not result in behavioral responses likely to entail substantial energy costs for reindeer; therefore, hunting at current levels appears compatible with other recreational activities.