Rab11A controls the biogenesis of Birbeck granules by regulating Langerin recycling and stability

The extent to which Rab GTPases, Rab-interacting proteins, and cargo molecules cooperate in the dynamic organization of membrane architecture remains to be clarified. Langerin, a recycling protein accumulating in the Rab11-positive compartments of Langerhans cells, induces the formation of Birbeck granules (BGs), which are membrane subdomains of the endosomal recycling network. We investigated the role of Rab11A and two members of the Rab11 family of interacting proteins, Rip11 and RCP, in Langerin traffic and the biogenesis of BGs. The overexpression of a dominant-negative Rab11A mutant or Rab11A depletion strongly influenced Langerin traffic and stability and the formation of BGs, whereas modulation of other Rab proteins involved in dynamic regulation of the endocytic-recycling pathway had no effect. Impairment of Rab11A function led to a missorting of Langerin to lysosomal compartments, but inhibition of Langerin degradation by chloroquine did not restore the formation of BGs. Loss of RCP, but not of Rip11, also had a modest, but reproducible effect on Langerin stability and BG biogenesis, pointing to a role for Rab11A-RCP complexes in these events. Our results show that Rab11A and Langerin are required for BG biogenesis, and they illustrate the role played by a Rab GTPase in the formation of a specialized subcompartment within the endocytic-recycling system.     

Birbeck granules are subdomains of endosomal recycling compartment in human epidermal Langerhans cells, which form where Langerin accumulates.

Birbeck granules are unusual rod-shaped structures specific to epidermal Langerhans cells, whose origin and function remain undetermined. We investigated the intracellular location and fate of Langerin, a protein implicated in Birbeck granule biogenesis, in human epidermal Langerhans cells. In the steady state, Langerin is predominantly found in the endosomal recycling compartment and in Birbeck granules. Langerin internalizes by classical receptor-mediated endocytosis and the first Birbeck granules accessible to endocytosed Langerin are those connected to recycling endosomes in the pericentriolar area, where Langerin accumulates. Drug-induced inhibition of endocytosis results in the appearance of abundant open-ended Birbeck granule-like structures appended to the plasma membrane, whereas inhibition of recycling induces Birbeck granules to merge with a tubular endosomal network. In mature Langerhans cells, Langerin traffic is abolished and the loss of internal Langerin is associated with a concomitant depletion of Birbeck granules. Our results demonstrate an exchange of Langerin between early endosomal compartments and the plasma membrane, with dynamic retention in the endosomal recycling compartment. They show that Birbeck granules are not endocytotic structures, rather they are subdomains of the endosomal recycling compartment that form where Langerin accumulates. Finally, our results implicate ADP-ribosylation factor proteins in Langerin trafficking and the exchange between Birbeck granules and other endosomal membranes.     

Activation of G Proteins Bidirectionally Affects Apoptosis of Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract: Cultured cerebellar granule neurons maintained in depolarizing concentrations of K⁺ (25 m M ) and then switched to physiological concentrations of K⁺ (5 m M ) undergo apoptosis. We now report that activation of specific G proteins robustly and bidirectionally affects apoptosis of cultured rat cerebellar granule neurons. Stimulation of G_s with cholera toxin completely blocks apoptosis induced by nondepolarizing concentrations of K⁺, whereas stimulation of G_o/G_i with the wasp venom peptide mastoparan induces apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons even in high (depolarizing) concentrations of K⁺. Moreover, pretreatment of cerebellar granule neurons with cholera toxin attenuates neuronal death induced by mastoparan. By contrast, pertussis toxin, cell-permeable analogues of cyclic AMP, and activators of protein kinase A do not affect apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. These data suggest that G proteins may function as key switches for controlling the programmed death of mammalian neurons, especially in the developing CNS.     

Alteration of Fatty-Acid-Metabolizing Enzymes Affects Mitochondrial Form and Function in Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is considered one of the most heterogeneous groups of neurological disorders, both clinically and genetically. The disease comprises pure and complex forms that clinically include slowly progressive lower-limb spasticity resulting from degeneration of the corticospinal tract. At least 48 loci accounting for these diseases have been mapped to date, and mutations have been identified in 22 genes, most of which play a role in intracellular trafficking. Here, we identified mutations in two functionally related genes (DDHD1 and CYP2U1) in individuals with autosomal-recessive forms of HSP by using either the classical positional cloning or a combination of whole-genome linkage mapping and next-generation sequencing. Interestingly, three subjects with CYP2U1 mutations presented with a thin corpus callosum, white-matter abnormalities, and/or calcification of the basal ganglia. These genes code for two enzymes involved in fatty-acid metabolism, and we have demonstrated in human cells that the HSP pathophysiology includes alteration of mitochondrial architecture and bioenergetics with increased oxidative stress. Our combined results focus attention on lipid metabolism as a critical HSP pathway with a deleterious impact on mitochondrial bioenergetic function.     

Carbohydrate Accumulation Affects the Redox State of Ascorbate in Detached Tobacco Leaves

A decreased utilization of NADPH for CO₂ fixation as a result of carbohydrate accumulation in chlorotic leaves is generally believed to be associated with an increase in oxidative stress. Molecular oxygen may serve as an alternative electron acceptor of photosynthesis under these conditions. In order to test this hypothesis mature leaves of tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum) were detached, fed with glucose (50 mM) via the petiole, and used to study the effect of carbohydrate accumulation on the pigment content and the components of the superoxide dismutase-ascorbate-glutathione cycle. During a period of five days the concentration of total soluble carbohydrates increased substantially in leaves supplied with glucose in comparison with control leaves supplied only with water. This increase was accompanied by a twofold decrease in the chlorophyll content. In detached water-fed leaves the levels of most of the antioxidative components increased, whereas glucose feeding had no or only little additional effect on the activities of the protective enzymes, but caused a 1.6- and 4-fold increase in the contents of glutathione and ascorbate, respectively. In relation to the total foliar ascorbate pool, the amount of reduced ascorbate increased from about 30 % to 60 % upon feeding with glucose. These results do not support the idea that the accumulation carbohydrates per se cause an increased rate of superoxide production which necessitates increased activities of antioxidative enzymes. It rather appears that glucose-fed leaves have an increased reductive capacity that can be released via glutathione into the ascorbate pool, thereby, regulating the redox state of ascorbate.     

Alteration of Different Domains in AFLR Affects Aflatoxin Pathway Metabolism inAspergillus parasiticusTransformants

AFLR, a zinc binuclear cluster DNA-binding protein, is required for activation of genes comprising the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway inAspergillusspp. Transformation ofAspergillus parasiticuswith plasmids containing the intactaflRgene gave clones that produced fivefold more aflatoxin pathway metabolites than did the untransformed strain. When a 13-bp region in theaflRpromoter (positions −102 to −115 with respect to the ATG) was deleted, including a portion of a palindromic site previously shown to bind recombinant AFLR, metabolite production was 40% that of transformants with intactaflR.This result provides further evidence that this site may be involved in the autoregulation ofaflR.Overexpression of pathway genes could also result from increased quantities of AFLR titrating out a putative repressor protein. In AFLR, a 20-amino-acid acidic region near its carboxy-terminus resembles the region in yeast GAL4 required for GAL80 repressor binding. When 3 of the acidic amino acids in this region were deleted, levels of metabolites were even higher than those produced by transformants with intactaflR,as would be expected if repressor binding was suppressed in transformants containing this altered protein. Transformation with plasmids mutated at the AFLR zinc cluster (Cys to Trp at amino acid position 49) or at a putative nuclear localization signal region (RRARK deleted) gave clones with one-fifth the metabolite production of the untransformed fungus in spite of the transformants making the same or moreaflRmRNA. Since these transformants retained a copy of intactaflR,the latter results can be explained best by assuming that AFLR activates genes involved in aflatoxin production as a dimeric protein and that heterodimers containing both mutant and intact AFLR strands are inactive.     

γ-Aminobutyric Acid Affects the Developmental Expression of Neuron-Associated Proteins in Cerebellar Granule Cell Cultures

The effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on the expression of the neuron-associated D2 and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) was studied during development in culture of cerebellar granule cells. It was found that the presence of GABA during culture development increased the overall protein content. D2 content was also increased but not above the general increase in protein whereas NSE increased above the general level of protein. The presence of GABA in the growth medium also appeared to accelerate the changes in molecular forms of D2 and NSE seen during neuronal development. This suggests that GABA promotes or accelerates the general maturation of neurons, as these two neuron-associated proteins otherwise differ from each other with respect to their subcellular localization and their physiological and biochemical properties.     

Conditional Knockout of Tumor Overexpressed Gene in Mouse Neurons Affects RNA Granule Assembly,Granule Translation,LTP and Short Term Habituation

In neurons, specific RNAs are assembled into granules, which are translated in dendrites, however the functional consequences of granule assembly are not known. Tumor overexpressed gene (TOG) is a granule-associated protein containing multiple binding sites for heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2, another granule component that recognizes cis-acting sequences called hnRNP A2 response elements (A2REs) present in several granule RNAs. Translation in granules is sporadic, which is believed to reflect monosomal translation, with occasional bursts, which are believed to reflect polysomal translation. In this study, TOG expression was conditionally knocked out (TOG cKO) in mouse hippocampal neurons using cre/lox technology. In TOG cKO cultured neurons granule assembly and bursty translation of activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated (ARC) mRNA, an A2RE RNA, are disrupted. In TOG cKO brain slices synaptic sensitivity and long term potentiation (LTP) are reduced. TOG cKO mice exhibit hyperactivity, perseveration and impaired short term habituation. These results suggest that in hippocampal neurons TOG is required for granule assembly, granule translation and synaptic plasticity, and affects behavior.     

苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P20对杀虫晶体蛋白CrylAb表达的影响

苏云金杆菌 (Bacillusthuringiensis,简称Bt)杀虫晶体蛋白Cry1Ab因其C 半端缺少了一段含 4个半胱氨酸的氨基酸序列而导致蛋白的不稳定 ,报道苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P2 0帮助Cry1Ab蛋白的表达及晶体的形成。利用穿梭载体pHT310 1构建 3个表达质粒 ,即pT1B、pP1B和pDP1B ,3个质粒都含有cry1Ab基因 ,不同在于pT1B没有p2 0基因 ,pP1B含有p2 0全基因 ,而pDP1B不仅含有p2 0全基因 ,且在p2 0基因前插入cry1A(c)启动子。分别将这 3个表达质粒经电转化到苏云金杆菌晶体缺陷型菌株CryB中 ,获得转化菌株T1B、P1B和DP1B。Westernblot表明cry1Ab基因在这 3株菌中均表达了 130kD的蛋白 ,部分降解为大约 6 0kD的蛋白。蛋白定量分析显示 ,3株菌 130kD蛋白量的比为 1∶1.4∶1 5 ,降解后的 6 0kD蛋白量的比为 1∶1.1∶1.6 ,Cry1Ab蛋白总量的比为 1∶1∶2∶1 6。镜检发现 ,Cry1Ab在 3株菌中都形成典型的菱形晶体 ,其晶体大小为T1B 相似文献   

苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P20对杀虫晶体蛋白Cry1Ab表达的影响

苏云金杆菌(Bacillus thuringiensis, 简称Bt)杀虫晶体蛋白Cry1Ab因其C半端缺少了一段含4个半胱氨酸的氨基酸序列而导致蛋白的不稳定,报道苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P20帮助Cry1Ab蛋白的表达及晶体的形成。利用穿梭载体pHT3101构建3个表达质粒,即pT1B、pP1B和pDP1B,3个质粒都含有cry1Ab基因,不同在于pT1B没有p20基因,pP1B含有p20全基因,而pDP1B不仅含有p20全基因,且在p20基因前插入cry1A?启动子。分别将这3个表达质粒经电转化到苏云金杆菌晶体缺陷型菌株CryB中,获得转化菌株T1B、P1B和DP1B。Western blot表明cry1Ab基因在这3株菌中均表达了130 kD的蛋白,部分降解为大约60 kD的蛋白。蛋白定量分析显示,3株菌130 kD蛋白量的比为1∶1.4∶1.5,降解后的60 kD蛋白量的 比为1∶1.1∶1.6,Cry1Ab蛋白总量的比为1∶1∶2∶1.6。镜检发现,Cry1Ab在3株菌中都形成典型的菱形晶体,其晶体大小为T1B Helicoverpa armigera）均具有明显的杀虫活性,三者的LC₅₀差异不显著。研究表明,P20对cry1Ab基因的表达和晶体形成均有帮助,P20表达量的多少可能是导致Cry1Ab蛋白最终产量有所不同的因素。     

Electron Microscopic Evidence Suggesting Secretory Granule Formation within the Golgi Apparatus

Secretory granules have been seen within components of the Golgi bodies of rat pituitary acidophils and mouse pancreatic acinar cells. The fact that secretory granules are much more frequently encountered within Golgi components under conditions of increased secretory activity suggests that granule formation may occur within the Golgi apparatus in these two types of cells.     

Alteration of Tropomyosin-binding Properties of Tropomodulin-1 Affects Its Capping Ability and Localization in Skeletal Myocytes

Tropomodulin (Tmod) is an actin-capping protein that binds to the two tropomyosins (TM) at the pointed end of the actin filament to prevent further actin polymerization and depolymerization. Therefore, understanding the role of Tmod is very important when studying actin filament dependent processes such as muscle contraction and intracellular transport. The capping ability of Tmod is highly influenced by TM and is 1000-fold greater in the presence of TM. There are four Tmod isoforms (Tmod1–4), three of which, Tmod1, Tmod3, and Tmod4, are expressed in skeletal muscles. The affinity of Tmod1 to skeletal striated TM (stTM) is higher than that of Tmod3 and Tmod4 to stTM. In this study, we tested mutations in the TM-binding sites of Tmod1, using circular dichroism (CD) and prediction analysis (PONDR). The mutations R11K, D12N, and Q144K were chosen because they decreased the affinity of Tmod1 to stTM, making it similar to that of affinity of Tmod3 and Tmod4 to stTM. Significant reduction of inhibition of actin pointed-end polymerization in the presence of stTM was shown for Tmod1 (R11K/D12N/Q144K) as compared with WT Tmod1. When GFP-Tmod1 and mutants were expressed in primary chicken skeletal myocytes, decreased assembly of Tmod1 mutants was revealed. This indicates a direct correlation between TM-binding and the actin-capping abilities of Tmod. Our data confirmed the hypothesis that assembly of Tmod at the pointed-end of the actin filament depends on its TM-binding affinity.     

Alteration of the Amount of the Chloroplast Phosphate Translocator in Transgenic Tobacco Affects the Distribution of Assimilate between Starch and Sugar

Tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L.) transformed with sense and antisense constructs of a cDNA encoding the tobacco phosphate-triose phosphate-3-phosphoglycerate translocator (phosphate translocator) were shown to contain altered amounts of phosphate translocator mRNA and protein. Phosphate translocator activity in intact chloroplasts isolated from transformed plants showed a 15-fold variation, from 20% of the wild-type activity in antisense transformants to 300% of the wild-type activity in sense transformants. However, the maximal rates of photosynthesis and the rates of photosynthetic carbon assimilation in ambient CO2 showed no consistent differences between transformants. Starch content was decreased by 20% and total soluble sugars were increased by 20% in leaves of antisense transformants compared to sense transformants. The 40% decrease in the ratio of starch to total soluble sugars in antisense transformants relative to sense transformants indicates that distribution of assimilate between starch and sugar had been altered. However, the amount of sucrose in the leaves was unchanged. The changes in total soluble sugars were accounted for completely by changes in glucose and fructose, suggesting the existence of a homeostatic mechanism for maintaining sucrose concentrations in the leaves at the expense of glucose and fructose.     

Oligomerization of the chromatin-structuring protein H-NS

H-NS is a major component of the bacterial nucleoid, involved in condensing and packaging DNA and modulating gene expression. The mechanism by which this is achieved remains unclear. Genetic data show that the biological properties of H-NS are influenced by its oligomerization properties. We have applied a variety of biophysical techniques to study the structural basis of oligomerization of the H-NS protein from Salmonella typhimurium. The N-terminal 89 amino acids are responsible for oligomerization. The first 64 residues form a trimer dominated by an alpha-helix, likely to be in coiled-coil conformation. Extending this polypeptide to 89 amino acids generated higher order, heterodisperse oligomers. Similarly, in the full-length protein no single, defined oligomeric state is adopted. The C-terminal 48 residues do not participate in oligomerization and form a monomeric, DNA-binding domain. These N- and C-terminal domains are joined via a flexible linker which enables them to function independently within the context of the full-length protein. This novel mode of oligomerization may account for the unusual binding properties of H-NS.     

The Stiffness of Three-dimensional Ionic Self-assembling Peptide Gels Affects the Extent of Capillary-like Network Formation

Improving our ability to control capillary morphogenesis has implications for not only better understanding of basic biology, but also for applications in tissue engineering and in vitro testing. Numerous biomaterials have been investigated as cellular supports for these applications and the biophysical environment biomaterials provide to cells has been increasingly recognized as an important factor in directing cell function. Here, the ability of ionic self-assembling peptide gels to support capillary morphogenesis and the effect of their mechanical properties is investigated. When placed in a physiological salt solution, these oligopeptides spontaneously self-assemble into gels with an extracellular matrix (ECM)-like microarchitecture. To evaluate the ability of three-dimensional (3D) self-assembled peptide gels to support capillary-like network formation, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were embedded within RAD16-I ((RADA)₄) or RAD16-II ((RARADADA)₂) peptide gels with various stiffness values. As peptide stiffness is decreased cells show increased elongation and are increasingly able to contract gels. The observation that capillary morphogenesis is favored in more malleable substrates is consistent with previous reports using natural biomaterials. The structural properties of peptide gels and their ability to support capillary morphogenesis in vitro make them promising biomaterials to investigate for numerous biomedical applications.     

Formation of Disulfide Bridges Drives Oligomerization,Membrane Pore Formation,and Translocation of Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 to Cell Surfaces

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a key signaling molecule in tumor-induced angiogenesis. FGF2 is secreted by an unconventional secretory mechanism that involves phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-dependent insertion of FGF2 oligomers into the plasma membrane. This process is regulated by Tec kinase-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of FGF2. Molecular interactions driving FGF2 monomers into membrane-inserted FGF2 oligomers are unknown. Here we identify two surface cysteines that are critical for efficient unconventional secretion of FGF2. They represent unique features of FGF2 as they are absent from all signal-peptide-containing members of the FGF protein family. We show that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-dependent FGF2 oligomerization concomitant with the generation of membrane pores depends on FGF2 surface cysteines as either chemical alkylation or substitution with alanines impairs these processes. We further demonstrate that the FGF2 variant forms lacking the two surface cysteines are not secreted from cells. These findings were corroborated by experiments redirecting a signal-peptide-containing FGF family member from the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi-dependent secretory pathway into the unconventional secretory pathway of FGF2. Cis elements known to be required for unconventional secretion of FGF2, including the two surface cysteines, were transplanted into a variant form of FGF4 without signal peptide. The resulting FGF4/2 hybrid protein was secreted by unconventional means. We propose that the formation of disulfide bridges drives membrane insertion of FGF2 oligomers as intermediates in unconventional secretion of FGF2.