Alcelaphine Herpesvirus-1 (Malignant Catarrhal Fever Virus) in Wildebeest Placenta: Genetic Variation of ORF50 and A9.5 Alleles

Alcelaphine herpesvirus–1 (AlHV-1), a causative agent of malignant catarrhal fever in cattle, was detected in wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) placenta tissue for the first time. Although viral load was low, the finding of viral DNA in over 50% of 94 samples tested lends support to the possibility that placental tissue could play a role in disease transmission and that wildebeest calves are infected in utero. Two viral loci were sequenced to examine variation among virus samples obtained from wildebeest and cattle: the ORF50 gene, encoding the lytic cycle transactivator protein, and the A9.5 gene, encoding a novel polymorphic viral glycoprotein. ORF50 was well conserved with six newly discovered alleles differing at only one or two base positions. In contrast, while only three new A9.5 alleles were discovered, these differed by up to 13% at the nucleotide level and up to 20% at the amino acid level. Structural homology searching performed with the additional A9.5 sequences determined in this study adds power to recent analysis identifying the four-helix bundle cytokine interleukin-4 (IL4) as the major homologue. The majority of MCF virus samples obtained from Tanzanian cattle and wildebeest encoded A9.5 polypeptides identical to the previously characterized A9.5 allele present in the laboratory maintained AlHV-1 C500 strain. This supports the view that AlHV-1 C500 is suitable for the development of a vaccine for wildebeest-associated MCF.     

An Estimation of Private Household Costs to Receive Free Oral Cholera Vaccine in Odisha,India

BackgroundService provider costs for vaccine delivery have been well documented; however, vaccine recipients’ costs have drawn less attention. This research explores the private household out-of-pocket and opportunity costs incurred to receive free oral cholera vaccine during a mass vaccination campaign in rural Odisha, India.MethodsFollowing a government-driven oral cholera mass vaccination campaign targeting population over one year of age, a questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey was conducted to estimate private household costs among vaccine recipients. The questionnaire captured travel costs as well as time and wage loss for self and accompanying persons. The productivity loss was estimated using three methods: self-reported, government defined minimum daily wages and gross domestic product per capita in Odisha.FindingsOn average, families were located 282.7 (SD = 254.5) meters from the nearest vaccination booths. Most family members either walked or bicycled to the vaccination sites and spent on average 26.5 minutes on travel and 15.7 minutes on waiting. Depending upon the methodology, the estimated productivity loss due to potential foregone income ranged from $0.15 to $0.29 per dose of cholera vaccine received. The private household cost of receiving oral cholera vaccine constituted 24.6% to 38.0% of overall vaccine delivery costs.InterpretationThe private household costs resulting from productivity loss for receiving a free oral cholera vaccine is a substantial proportion of overall vaccine delivery cost and may influence vaccine uptake. Policy makers and program managers need to recognize the importance of private costs and consider how to balance programmatic delivery costs with private household costs to receive vaccines.     

Cross-Reactivity of Neutralizing Antibodies among Malignant Catarrhal Fever Viruses

Some members of the gamma herpesvirus genus Macavirus are maintained in nature as subclinical infections in well-adapted ungulate hosts. Transmission of these viruses to poorly adapted hosts, such as American bison and cattle, can result in the frequently fatal disease malignant catarrhal fever (MCF). Based on phylogenetic analysis, the MCF viruses (MCFV) cluster into two subgroups corresponding to the reservoir hosts’ subfamilies: Alcelaphinae/Hippotraginae and Caprinae. Antibody cross-reactivity among MCFVs has been demonstrated using techniques such as enzyme linked immunosorbent and immunofluorescence assays. However, minimal information is available as to whether virus neutralizing antibodies generated against one MCFV cross react with other members of the genus. This study tested the neutralizing activity of serum and plasma from select MCFV-infected reservoir hosts against alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1) and ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2). Neutralizing antibody activity against AlHV-1 was detected in samples from infected hosts in the Alcelaphinae and Hippotraginae subfamilies, but not from hosts in the Caprinae subfamily. OvHV-2 neutralizing activity was demonstrated in samples from goats (Caprinae) but not from wildebeest (Alcelaphinae). These results show that neutralizing antibody cross reactivity is present to MCFVs within a virus subgroup but not between subgroups. This information is important for diagnosing infection with MCFVs and in the development of vaccines against MCF.     

The Economic Burden Attributable to a Child’s Inpatient Admission for Diarrheal Disease in Rwanda

Background

Diarrhea is one of the leading causes of childhood morbidity and mortality. Hospitalization for diarrhea can pose a significant burden to health systems and households. The objective of this study was to estimate the economic burden attributable to hospitalization for diarrhea among children less than five years old in Rwanda. These data can be used by decision-makers to assess the impact of interventions that reduce diarrhea morbidity, including rotavirus vaccine introduction.

Methods

This was a prospective costing study where medical records and hospital bills for children admitted with diarrhea at three hospitals were collected to estimate resource use and costs. Hospital length of stay was calculated from medical records. Costs incurred during the hospitalization were abstracted from the hospital bills. Interviews with the child’s caregivers provided data to estimate household costs which included transport costs and lost income. The portion of medical costs borne by insurance and household were reported separately. Annual economic burden before and after rotavirus vaccine introduction was estimated by multiplying the reported number of diarrhea hospitalizations in public health centers and district hospitals by the estimated economic burden per hospitalization. All costs are presented in 2014 US$.

Results

Costs for 203 children were analyzed. Approximately 93% of the children had health insurance coverage. Average hospital length of stay was 5.3 ± 3.9 days. Average medical costs for each child for the illness resulting in a hospitalization were $44.22 ± $23.74 and the total economic burden was $101, of which 65% was borne by the household. For households in the lowest income quintile, the household costs were 110% of their monthly income. The annual economic burden to Rwanda attributable to diarrhea hospitalizations ranged from $1.3 million to $1.7 million before rotavirus vaccine introduction.

Conclusion

Households often bear the largest share of the economic burden attributable to diarrhea hospitalization and the burden can be substantial, especially for households in the lowest income quintile.     

Epidemiologic and pathologic aspects of an epizootic of malignant catarrhal fever in exotic hoofstock

An epizootic of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) occurred at the Los Angeles Zoological Park which resulted in the deaths of four exotic ungulates. The source of infection was considered to be a newly purchased wildebeest bull (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) that had been negative for antibody to MCF virus by an indirect immunofluorescent test. The need to re-evaluate regulations for the transportation and housing of young wildebeest is emphasized by this MCF outbreak. The diagnostic technology now available for identifying asymptomatic carriers of MCF virus and the present understanding of the behavior and pathogenesis of this highly cell-associated herpesvirus in exotic ruminants should provide a basis for the prevention and control of MCF in zoological parks.     

Expansion of human settlement in Kenya's Maasai Mara: what future for pastoralism and wildlife?

Aim Wildlife and pastoral peoples have lived side‐by‐side in the Mara ecosystem of south‐western Kenya for at least 2000 years. Recent changes in human population and landuse are jeopardizing this co‐existence. The aim of the study is to determine the viability of pastoralism and wildlife conservation in Maasai ranches around the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR). Location A study area of 2250 km² was selected in the northern part of the Serengeti‐Mara ecosystem, encompassing group ranches adjoining the MMNR. Emphasis is placed on Koyake Group Ranch, a rangeland area owned by Maasai pastoralists, and one of Kenya's major wildlife tourism areas. Methods Maasai settlement patterns, vegetation, livestock numbers and wildlife numbers were analysed over a 50‐year period. Settlement distributions and vegetation changes were determined from aerial photography and aerial surveys of 1950, 1961, 1967, 1974, 1983 and 1999. Livestock and wildlife numbers were determined from re‐analysis of systematic reconnaissance flights conducted by the Kenya Government from 1977 to 2000, and from ground counts in 2002. Corroborating data on livestock numbers were obtained from aerial photography of Maasai settlements in 2001. Trends in livestock were related to rainfall, and to vegetation production as indicated by the seasonal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. With these data sets, per capita livestock holdings were determined for the period 1980–2000, a period of fluctuating rainfall and primary production. Results For the first half of the twentieth century, the Mara was infested with tsetse‐flies, and the Maasai were confined to the Lemek Valley area to the north of the MMNR. During the early 1960s, active tsetse‐control measures by both government and the Maasai led to the destruction of woodlands across the Mara and the retreat of tsetse flies. The Maasai were then able to expand their settlement area south towards MMNR. Meanwhile, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) from the increasing Serengeti population began to spill into the Mara rangelands each dry season, leading to direct competition between livestock and wildlife. Group ranches were established in the area in 1970 to formalize land tenure for the Maasai. By the late 1980s, with rapid population growth, new settlement areas had been established at Talek and other parts adjacent to the MMNR. Over the period 1983–99, the number of Maasai bomas in Koyake has increased at 6.4% per annum (pa), and the human population at 4.4% pa. Over the same period, cattle numbers on Koyake varied from 20,000 to 45,000 (average 25,000), in relation to total rainfall received over the previous 2 years. The rangelands of the Mara cannot support a greater cattle population under current pastoral practices. Conclusions With the rapid increase in human settlement in the Mara, and with imminent land privatization, it is probable that wildlife populations on Koyake will decline significantly in the next 3–5 years. Per capita livestock holdings on the ranch have now fallen to three livestock units/reference adult, well below minimum pastoral subsistence requirements. During the 1980s and 90s the Maasai diversified their livelihoods to generate revenues from tourism, small‐scale agriculture and land‐leases for mechanized cultivation. However, there is a massive imbalance in tourism incomes in favour of a small elite. In 1999 the membership of Koyake voted to subdivide the ranch into individual holdings. In 2003 the subdivision survey allocated plots of 60 ha average size to 1020 ranch members. This land privatization may result in increased cultivation and fencing, the exclusion of wildlife, and the decline of tourism as a revenue generator. This unique pastoral/wildlife system will shortly be lost unless land holdings can be managed to maintain the free movement of livestock and wildlife.     

Epidemiology of brucellosis in cattle and dairy farmers of rural Ludhiana,Punjab

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease imposing significant impacts on livestock production and public health worldwide. India is the world’s leading milk producer and Punjab is the state which produces the most cattle and buffalo milk per capita. The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of bovine brucellosis to provide evidence for control of the disease in Punjab State, India. A cross-sectional study of dairy farms was conducted in humans and livestock in rural Ludhiana district using a multi-stage sampling strategy. The study suggests that brucellosis is endemic at high levels in cattle and buffalo in the study area with 15.1% of large ruminants testing seropositive and approximately a third of dairy farms having at least one animal test seropositive. In total, 9.7% of those in direct contact with livestock tested seropositive for Brucella spp. Persons that assisted with calving and/or abortion within the last year on a farm with seronegative livestock and people which did not assist with calving/abortion had 0.35 (95% CI: 0.17 to 7.1) and 0.21 (0.09 to 0.46) times the odds of testing seropositive compared to persons assisting with calving/abortion in a seropositive farm, respectively. The study demonstrated that persons in direct contact with cattle and buffalo in the study area have high risk of exposure to Brucella spp. Control of the disease in livestock is likely to result in benefits to both animal and public health sectors.     

Identification of a Short Region on Chromosome 6 Affecting Direct Calving Ease in Piedmontese Cattle Breed

Calving in cattle is affected by calf morphology and by dam characteristics. It is described by two different traits: maternal calving ease, which is the ability to generate dams with good physiological predisposition to calving, and direct calving ease, which is the ability to generate calves that are easily born. The aim of this study was to identify regions of cattle genome harboring genes possibly affecting direct calving ease in the Piedmontese cattle breed. A population of 323 bulls scored for direct calving ease (EBV) was analyzed by a medium-density SNP marker panel (54,001 SNPs) to perform a genome-wide scan. The strongest signal was detected on chromosome 6 between 37.8 and 38.7 Mb where 13 SNPs associated to direct calving ease were found. Three genes are located in this region: LAP3, encoding for a leucine aminopeptidase involved in the oxytocin hydrolysis; NCAPG, encoding for a non-SMC condensin I complex, which has been associated in cattle with fetal growth and carcass size; and LCORL, which has been associated to height in humans and cattle. To further confirm the results of the genome-wide scan we genotyped additional SNPs within these genes and analyzed their association with direct calving ease. The results of this additional analysis fully confirmed the findings of the GWAS and particularly indicated LAP3 as the most probable gene involved. Linkage Disequilibrium (LD) analysis showed high correlation between SNPs located within LAP3 and LCORL indicating a possible selection signature due either to increased fitness or breeders’ selection for the trait.     

Changes in North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) cow–calf association times and use of the calving ground: 1993–2005

Like most mysticetes, North Atlantic right whale cows generally separate from their calves on their feeding grounds within a year. Right whale life history data from 1993 to 2005 were analyzed to determine the duration of cow/calf associations and where the pair separated. A change occurred with the 2001 cows; 71% of those available stayed with their calves into the second year and this behavior remained elevated for several years. Less experienced cows, independent of their age, were more likely to extend their associations. The occurrence of cow/yearling associations was not related to the length of the cow's previous interbirth interval, used as a proxy for cow condition, but the hypothesis that body condition impacts how long cows nurse their young could not be adequately tested. Seventy-seven percent of the observed cow/yearling pairs also returned to the calving ground, a substantial physiological investment given the 1,450 km plus migration and the fact that they fast there, indicating that factors other than nutrition also influenced the cow's behavior. The concurrent increase in juveniles in the shallow waters of the winter calving grounds may afford naive whales greater protection from predators or provide a social benefit that improves their overall fitness.     

Control of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis: Myth or reality?

The African trypanosomiasis are among Africa's most devastating diseases. The human disease, sleeping sickness, and the animal disease, nagana, are caused by trypanosomes, protozoan parasites transmitted by tsetse flies, Glossina spp. Attempts have been made to control tsetse and trypanosomiasis for over 70 years, supported by ever-increasing amounts of foreign aid. Although progress has been made in the control of sleeping sickness, this disease still persists in many countries. Nogono excludes cattle from many of the potentially most productive areas of Africa and is a major constraint on economic development. In this paper, Robert Dransfield, Brian Williams and Robert Brightwell review the control of tsetse and trypanosomiasis in the light of recent progress in our understanding of tsetse population dynamics, with special reference to the experience gained in tsetse control on a Maasai ranch at Ngurumon in the Rift Valley of Kenya, and make suggestions for the management and funding of future control programmes in relation to rural development.     

The significance of breeding synchrony in the wildebeest

Unlike most ungulates, whose offspring remain concealed for some time after birth, the offspring of the wildebeest and other alcelaphine antelopes (except harte-beest) accompany the mother from the very first hour. Most other ungulates that have follower-young either protect them effectively through a maternal or group defence (e.g. cattle, muskox, equids, and rhinoceroses), or are able to flee to sanc-tuaries (e.g. goats, sheep and goat-antelopes). In the Alcelaphini, primary reliance is placed on flight and on concealment among conspecifics; there is no effective defence against predators and no sanctuary. The spotted hyena is the primary predator on wildebeest calves. Over 80% of all wildebeest calves are born within an annual 2–3 week calving peak. During three different calving seasons (1 963-65) in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania, mortality in small, dispersed herds was found to be far higher than in large aggregations. The evidence suggested that this antelope's unusual reproductive strategy is adapted to the mobile-aggregated distribution pattern characteristic of migratory populations, rather than to the sedentary-dispersed pattern seen in resident populations. Further study on this specific question was undertaken during the 1973 calving season, with particular attention to reproductive success in small herds. Calf survival in small herds averaged just over 50% at the end of the 1973 birth peak, compared to 84% in aggregations. Daily sampling showed that calving peaked at different times in different parts of the Crater; this resulted in an extended season, although the peak in each population unit was of approximately equal duration. In some areas, calving was virtually finished before the peak began in the aggregations. Mortality ranged from very high among early calves to low in herds whose peak coincided with that of a nearby aggregation. The lack of synchrony between Ngorongoro subpopulations apparently reflects microclimatic differences, there being a pronounced rainfall and vegetation gradient within the caldera despite its small (265 km2) floor area. Low calf density combined with a lack of synchrony between small herds in different localities makes wildebeest living in the sedentary-dispersed pattern subject different localities makes wildebeest living in the sedentary-dispersed pattern subject to high calf mortality by the spotted hyena; in effect, resident subpopulations that calved ahead of the main population were providing a steady protein windfall for Ngorongoro's 470 hyenas. Tn the large aggregations, there were enough older calves to provide ‘cover’ for neonates during the first crucial day or two, making it much harder for hyenas to single out easily caught individuals. Therefore, lack of synchrony between aggregations did not apparently increase calf mortality to the same extent as it did in small herds. However, the highest survival rate was found among wilde-beest that left the Crater altogether and calved in an area with few hyenas. An evolutionary model of the wildebeest's reproductive system is presented, in An evolutionary model of the wildebeest's reproductive system is presented, which it is postulated that the system developed as part of the migratory habit of species. Given a feeding specialization for short, green grass and large, necessarily mobile aggregations, several synergistic selection pressures against concealment in favour of a follower strategy can be readily imagined. Breeding synchrony large aggregations are seen as the keys to the success of this strategy and an alternative to group defence, whereby predator populations are glutted without being sustained and the most vulnerable neonates are protected through the confusion effect created by many calves. Such a strategy is much less adaptive in a sedentary-dispersed population–which is the distribution pattern common to most antelopes-suggesting resident wildebeest populations represent a secondary adaptation to stable environments. Yet calf survival even in resident populations may equal the survival rates hidden young of sympatric antelopes, and be adaptive to the more fixed resources available in such situations.     

Native River Boats in ‘Irāq

The Maasai are cattle pastoralists, living on the grass savanna in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. This article, which deals with Kenya, describes Maasai women as “heads of houses”. The house as a physical structure shelters and symbolically embodies a matrofocal unit of consumption and resource sharing which is the smallest unit of Maasai society. In terms of livestock property, such units are subordinated to larger, patriarchal units. According to the author, the relative autonomy of Maasai houses, and in particular women's control over food resources is significantly decreasing. The reason for this is the present commercialization of Maasai production.     

Environmental aspects of settlement site decisions among pastoral Maasai

Maasai settlements in Amboseli are distributed in a pattern which reflects various physical and biological characteristics of the landscape. The settlements avoid hillslope gradients exceeding 0.08, and the lower sections of long hillsides, which receive large amounts of runoff. Long, relatively high hillslopes are difficult for exhausted cattle to climb at the end of the dry season, and even the welldrained sites at the upper ends of these slopes are not commonly used. Deep, poorly drained, and light-colored soils are avoided because they affect the comfort of humans, and especially the milk production of cattle. The settlements are located away from dense tree and bush vegetation because of the danger of predators, but during occupation of the site important changes in the vegetation are wrought by the use of trees for settlement construction and firewood. The reasons for the pattern were elucidated by making a set of systematic measurements of settlement distributions and various environmental factors. The conclusions of this analysis were then checked and extended through conversations with Maasai elders. These latter exhibited a sophisticated knowledge of environmental characteristics and processes which is reflected in their choice of settlement sites. Such knowledge has commonly been overlooked by other writers on the subject of pastoralism.     

太行山华北豹袭击家畜的时空特点与管理建议: 以山西省和顺县为例

人兽冲突是全球野生动物保护面临的共同挑战。袭击家畜是大型食肉动物引发人兽冲突的主要原因之一, 如果管理不当还会导致针对大型食肉动物的报复性猎杀等严重威胁。冲突的缓解需要深入了解冲突发生的规律与原因, 评估当地社区与居民的态度与看法, 以采取因地制宜的管理措施。太行山是华北豹(Panthera pardus japonensis)的核心分布区, 华北豹袭击家牛的问题是该区域野生华北豹保护中面临的一大挑战。本研究以山西省和顺县为研究区域, 在多方联合发起的“和顺县华北豹袭击家牛肇事补偿项目”实施过程中, 系统收集了2015-2019年期间华北豹袭击家畜事件的记录, 结合同期的红外相机监测数据, 探究了袭击事件的时空分布格局, 并从生境和猎物的角度分析了背后的原因。本文还评估了豹肇事造成的经济损失, 以及受损农户对华北豹的态度和对补偿的满意度。2015-2019年, 项目区域内共记录到华北豹袭击家牛事件195起, 向116户受损农户提供补偿资金共27.05万元。分析结果显示, 华北豹袭击家牛事件在夏季最多, 时间上与家牛上山散放的季节重叠; 袭击风险随狍(Capreolus pygargus)相对多度的上升而下降, 随家牛相对多度和距村庄距离的增加而上升, 但保护区内外和华北豹相对多度对袭击风险的影响不显著。对107名受损农户的访谈结果显示, 华北豹袭击家牛事件虽然对当地畜牧业所造成的整体损失较小, 但对受损农户而言其家庭收入损失严重, 因此导致受损农户对华北豹持负面态度, 且认为现有的补偿金额偏低。基于本研究的结果, 我们提出如下管理建议以期缓解未来该地区华北豹带来的人兽冲突: (1)加强放牧管理、改进管理方式, 特别是限制牛群离开村庄的距离, 以及在家牛散放期间将牛群每晚赶回牛圈以降低家畜被袭击的风险; (2)开展禁牧试点, 严格划分允许放牧与禁止放牧的区域; (3)继续开展华北豹袭击家牛的定损与补偿工作, 降低当地农户的经济损失, 同时开展社区走访、自然教育, 提升当地居民对华北豹的容忍度; (4)加强野生动物种群的监测与保护, 促进人与野生动物的和谐共存。     

Maasai Socioeconomic Conditions: A Cross-Border Comparison

A single round household survey was conducted between October 1997 and May 1998. Information was collected on 1545 Maasai households in Kenya and Tanzania using a standardized questionnaire. These data represent the first large-scale, cross-border comparable survey of socioeconomic indicators for the Maasai. The structure of the study is similar to that of a natural experiment: one ethnic group living in two very different nation-states. The survey results describe a current snapshot of Maasai livelihoods. Living arrangements are described at both the household (olmarei) and multihousehold (enkang) level, together with changes in housing type. The roles of cultivation, transhumant migration, and employment are described, including a consideration of the prevalence of murranism (warriorhood). The implications of rising levels of sedentarization and cash crop production for Maasai economic diversification are explored. Participation by Maasai in the tourism industry is extremely low despite the proximity of Maasai to major international tourist destinations in East Africa. Levels of formal education show a marked sex bias in completed primary school education in both countries, with far fewer women than men having attended school.     

Comparison of artificial insemination and natural service cost effectiveness in dairy cattle

Reproductive efficiency in the dairy herd is the most important factor for its economic success and a major concern for dairy farmers when using artificial insemination (AI) or natural service (NS). Our objectives were to estimate, compare and analyse the costs associated with breeding cattle by do-it-yourself (DIY) AI and NS and identify the factors that influence them, under typical dairy farming conditions in Greece. A simulation study was designed based on data from 120 dairy cattle farms that differed in size (range 40 to 285 cows) and milk production level (4000 to 9300 kg per cow per year). Different scenarios were employed to estimate costs associated directly with AI and NS as well as potentially extended calving intervals (ECI) due to AI. Results showed that bull maintenance costs for NS were €1440 to €1670 per year ($1,820 to $2,111). Direct AI costs were higher than those for NS for farms with more than 30 cows and ECI constituted a considerable additional burden. In fact, amongst the factors that affected the amount of milk needed to cover total extra AI costs, number of days open was the dominant one. Semen, feed and heifer prices had a very small effect. When, hypothetically, use of NS bulls results in a calving interval of 12 months, AI daughters with a calving interval of 13.5 months have to produce about 705 kg of additional milk in order to cover the extra cost. Their actual milk production, however, exceeds this limit by more than 25%. When real calving intervals are considered (13.0 v. 13.7 months for NS and AI, respectively) AI daughters turn out to produce more than twice the additional amount of milk needed. It was concluded that even under less than average management conditions, AI is more profitable than the best NS scenario. The efficient communication of this message should be a primary concern of the AI industry.     

Evidence of three new members of malignant catarrhal fever virus group in muskox (Ovibos moschatus), Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), and gemsbok (Oryx gazella)

Six members of the malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) virus group of ruminant rhadinoviruses have been identified to date. Four of these viruses are clearly associated with clinical disease: alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1) carried by wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.); ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2), ubiquitous in domestic sheep; caprine herpesvirus 2 (CpHV-2), endemic in domestic goats; and the virus of unknown origin found causing classic MCF in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; MCFV-WTD). Using serology and polymerase chain reaction with (degenerate primers targeting a portion of the herpesviral DNA polymerase gene, evidence of three previously unrecognized rhadinoviruses in the MCF virus group was found in muskox (Ovibos moschatus), Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), and gemsbok (South African oryx, Oryx gazella), respectively. Base on sequence alignment, the viral sequence in the muskox is most closely related to MCFV-WTD (81.5% sequence identity) and that in the Nubian ibex is closest to CpHV-2 (89.3% identity). The viral sequence in the gemsbok is most closely related to AlHV-1 (85.1% identity). No evidence of disease association with these viruses has been found.     

Fasting for 24 Hours Heightens Reward from Food and Food-Related Cues

Introduction

We examined the impact of a 24 hour complete fast (vs. fed state) on two measures of food reward: 1) ‘wanting’, as measured by response to food images and by the relative-reinforcing value of food (RRV), and 2) ‘liking’, as measured by response to food images and the hedonic evaluation of foods consumed.

Methods

Utilizing a randomized crossover design, 15 subjects (9 male; 6 female) aged 28.6±4.5 yrs with body mass index 25.3±1.4 kg/m² were randomized and counterbalanced to normal feeding (FED) and 24-hour fast (FASTED) conditions. Trait characteristics were measured with the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire. Two computer tasks measured food reward: 1) RRV progressive ratio task, 2) explicit ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ (Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire, LFPQ). Also measured were ad libitum energy intake (EI; buffet) and food ‘liking’ (visual analogue scale) of personalized stimuli.

Results

There were no significant anthropometric changes between conditions. Appetite scores, hedonic ratings of ‘liking’, and ad libitum EI all significantly increased under the FASTED condition (p<0.05). Under the FASTED condition there were significant increases in the RRV of snack foods; similarly, explicit ‘wanting’ and ‘liking’ significantly increased for all food categories. ‘Liking’ of sweet foods remained high across-meals under FASTED, but savory foods decreased in hedonic saliency.

Conclusion

Relative to a fed state, we observed an increase in hedonic ratings of food, the rewarding value of food, and food intake after a 24 hr fast. Alliesthesia to food and food cues is suggested by heightened hedonic ratings under the FASTED condition relative to FED.     

Effects of a single nucleotide polymorphism in the leptin gene on the productive traits of dairy buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)

The gene responsible for coding the leptin hormone has been associated with productive and reproductive traits in cattle. In dairy cattle, different polymorphisms found in the leptin gene have been associated with several traits of economic interest, such as energy balance, milk yield and composition, live weight, fertility and dry matter consumption. The aim of this study was to detect genetic variability in the leptin gene of buffaloes and to test possible associations with milk yield, fat and protein percentages, age at first calving and first calving interval. Three genotypes (AA, AG and GG) were identified by polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism, which presented genotypic frequencies of 0.30, 0.54 and 0.16, respectively. The allele frequencies were 0.57 for the A allele and 0.43 for the G allele. No significant effects were found in the present study, but there is an indicative that leptin gene affects lipid metabolism.     

Dry wildebeest carcasses in the African savannah: the utilization of a unique resource

Utilization of dry wildebeest carcasses by spotted hyaena in an African savannah setting is investigated. Four transects of varying length (3–10 km) were located in the Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Measuring carcass weight changes biweekly over a period of 9 months monitored hyaena use of dry wildebeest carcasses. Nutrient quality of dry carcasses (skin and bone) and of flesh was analysed in the laboratory using the material collected in the field. Contrary to common expectation, carcass weight change was significantly higher when the migrants were present in the Reserve than when they were absent in all transects monitored. This is thought to indicate greater carcass utilization during periods of relative prey scarcity caused by the migratory herd movements within the Reserve, and perhaps, the territorial nature of spotted hyaenas. Nutrient analysis indicated that dry carcasses contain significant amounts of protein, carbohydrates and minerals, although lacking in fats compared with flesh. The opportunistic nature and evolution of a digestive physiology in this species capable of utilizing dry carcasses appears to have important adaptive value in an environment frequented by thousands of migrant herbivores for short periods every year.