Behavioral,morphological, and physiological traits associated with migratoryBemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

Bemisia tabaci, that were flown for varying lengths of time (1 min-2.5 h), exhibited behavioral, morphological, and physiological differences. When whiteflies that were engaging in phototactic orientation in a vertical flight chamber were presented with a visual cue simulating their host plant (550-nm narrowband interference filter), 76% landed on this cue within three presentations. Another 18% of the whiteflies displayed an intermittent attraction to the host cue, and 6% displayed a response that, historically, has been considered to be indicative of migration. These individuals failed to respond to the target until they had flown for at least 15 min. These three categories of response were observed in both sexes, in all flight-capable individuals from 1 to 5 days old and in two groups of whiteflies that were exhibiting distinct behaviors prior to our tests (i.e., they were either settled on poinsettia or engaging in phototactic orientation). There was a trend for males that engaged in long-distance flight to have smaller wing dimensions than males that engaged in shorter flights; no trend was evident in female whiteflies. High levels of vitellogenin and vitellin did not inhibit flight activity. In fact, we generally found higher levels of egg proteins in long-distance fliers and in premigratory individuals than in short-duration fliers and settled individuals.     

Response of Eretmocerus eremicus to skylight and plant cues in a vertical flight chamber

In the southwestern United States, Eretmocerus eremicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) is a native parasitoid of the Bemisia complex (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). However, little information currently exists on its potential as a biological control agent of whiteflies or on the factors that influence its tendencies to disperse. In this study, we examined the flight behavior of male and female E. eremicus in response to skylight (here simulated by a mercury-vapor lamp) and plant cues (a 550-nm filtered light) in a vertical flight chamber. Approximately 90% of the parasitoids took off in response to the skylight cue. Both sexes were capable of sustained flights in excess of 60 min; however, males had higher rates of climb than females (3.31±0.17 and 2.63±0.19 cm s^–1, respectively). When a plant cue was presented during the parasitoid's phototactic flight, four relatively distinct responses were observed. Fifty-one percent of the individuals responded to the plant cue throughout their flight by flying toward or by landing on the cue. The majority of these parasitoids were females. Approximately 12% of the wasps exhibited an intermittent, positive response to the plant cue. Twenty percent exhibited a `migratory' response. These parasitoids, which were predominantly males, failed to respond to the plant cue until they had flown for a considerable period. Finally, 17% failed to respond to the target during their flight. Approximately 37% of the individuals that showed a positive response to the plant cue actually landed on it and the majority of these were female. The differential response to the plant cue by male and female parasitoids could be, in part, because females are driven to locate hosts in which to oviposit, and males are driven to find mates.     

Environmental factors affecting the behavior of Coenosia attenuata,a predator of Trialeurodes vaporariorum in tomato greenhouses

Adults of the predatory fly Coenosia attenuata Stein (Diptera: Muscidae) catch their prey while in flight. I investigated this activity over two seasons in a tomato greenhouse naturally infested with Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). The flight of C. attenuata individuals was affected by environmental factors and was increased in response to increases in temperature, the number of prey flights, and conspecific density. Predator and prey flights were distributed throughout the day, but there was a regular daily trend, each with two partially overlapping activity peaks. The possibility of predation was limited by differences in daily flight‐activity times. Predatory flights comprised a small percentage (ca. 6%) of the total flights, with a predation success rate of 61%. Overall, the predatory activity of C. attenuata depended on the selection of hunting sites with good visibility to ensure a clear view before take‐off and allow the capture of prey in flight. Similar numbers of overall flights were made by both sexes, but C. attenuata females performed more predation flights and territorial defense activities than males. The ecological role of C. attenuata and its limited adaptability to greenhouses is discussed in light of its possible use in biological control of whiteflies.     

Modulation of whitefly take-off and flight orientation by wind speed and visual cues

The effect of different wind speeds on take-off and flight orientation of the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), was studied in the presence of a green visual stimulus which reflected 550 ± 10 nm light, or a white stimulus of the same intensity. When the white light was present, take-off was negatively correlated with wind speed. Analysis of the flight tracks of whiteflies in 0, 15 and 30 cm/s wind with the white light present showed that flight was not directed toward the stimulus in zero wind, and that insects were carried downwind as the wind increased. Net displacement downwind was significantly slower than the wind speed, indicating that B. tabaci can control its rate of displacement relative to its surroundings, and is not always passively transported by the wind. In the presence of the green visual stimulus, take-off and flight behaviour of B. tabaci was markedly different to that observed in the presence of the white light. Taking off was more likely and whiteflies made upwind orientated flights, landing on the illuminated section of the screen when it reflected green light. At all wind speeds tested, the mean ground speeds of B. tabaci were approximately 20 cm/s whether the insects were flying upwind or downwind. This uniformity of ground speed regardless of the changing effects of wind-induced drift in different directions strongly suggests that whiteflies actively control their ground speed using visual flow fields in a manner similar to all other flying insects examined thus far.     

Flight behaviour of Bemisia tabaci in a vertical flight chamber: effect of time of day, sex, age and host quality

Abstract. The free-flight behaviour of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), the sweet potato whitefly, was investigated in a vertical flight chamber. A mercury-vapour lamp presented from above induced a phototactic flight response. Although flight propensity was comparable from 06.00 to 19.00 hours, flight duration was maximum between 06.00 and 10.00 hours. Males flew longer than females and their mean flight duration remained constant throughout the day. Females flew longer from 06.00 to 13.00 hours than from 13.00 to 19.00 hours. Both sexes were capable of sustaining flight for more than 2h, although less than 5% of those tested did so.
Flight activity also was influenced by age and by host quality. The propensity to take off, proportion exhibiting phototactic orientation and flight duration varied with the age of the whitefly. Host quality influenced the timing of flight behaviour. Whiteflies reared on senescing plants exhibited greater take-off rates and initiated longer phototactic flights up to 4 days following adult eclosion when compared to individuals reared on vegetative plants. Thereafter, individuals reared on vegetative plants exhibited greater response levels. Whiteflies reared on vegetative plants weighed more and survived longer than did individuals reared on senescing plants.
Whiteflies that responded to the overhead light initially exhibited a strong photokinetic and phototactic response. Over the course of the flight, these responses declined and flight instability increased, as indicated by an overall decrease in the mean rate of climb, accompanied by an increase in the variability of this parameter and an increase in horizontal displacement. Although males and females displayed similar flight characteristics, females exhibited a greater rate of climb than did males, and for both sexes, individuals that flew longer than 25 min had a greater rate of climb than did individuals that flew for less than 25 min.     

Avoidance of natural enemies by adult whiteflies, Bemisia argentifolii, and effects on host plant choice

In this study we asked whether, in the context of a trap crop system, differential predation risks among plants influence host choice patterns of adult whiteflies, Bemisia argentifolii. We investigated whether adult whiteflies avoid natural enemies inhabiting poinsettia (a cash crop) and whether this behavior can be used to increase the movement of whiteflies to cucumber (a trap crop). The potential of cucumber as a trap crop was first evaluated and we found that significantly more whiteflies were attracted to cucumber when the whiteflies were released between the two plants. However, the accumulation of whiteflies on cucumber substantially diminished if the insects had first settled on poinsettia. Under such circumstances, we investigated whether movement of adult whiteflies to cucumber could be increased by creating conditions that would cause the whiteflies that had settled on poinsettia to leave the plant. A mechanical disturbance, consisting of shaking the plant, was first used to test this hypothesis. The shaking caused more whiteflies to leave poinsettia and move onto the trap crop, compared to undisturbed whiteflies. We then asked whether the presence of natural enemies on the cash crop could induce whiteflies to leave the cash crop and move onto the trap crop. Three natural enemies were tested: two predators, Amblyseius swirskii and Delphastus catalinae, and a parasitoid Encarsia formosa. The presence of D. catalinae on poinsettia induced significantly more whiteflies to disperse to cucumber compared to poinsettia with no natural enemies, whereas A. swirskii and E. formosa did not result in a significant increase. Predator avoidance behavior by adult whiteflies should be investigated further in the context of trap cropping and other crop-habitat alterations designed to help manage whitefly abundance.     

Perch-hunting in insectivorous Rhinolophus bats is related to the high energy costs of manoeuvring in flight

Foraging behaviour of bats is supposedly largely influenced by the high costs of flapping flight. Yet our understanding of flight energetics focuses mostly on continuous horizontal forward flight at intermediate speeds. Many bats, however, perform manoeuvring flights at suboptimal speeds when foraging. For example, members of the genus Rhinolophus hunt insects during short sallying flights from a perch. Such flights include many descents and ascents below minimum power speed and are therefore considered energetically more expensive than flying at intermediate speed. To test this idea, we quantified the energy costs of short manoeuvring flights (<2 min) using the Na-bicarbonate technique in two Rhinolophus species that differ in body mass but have similar wing shapes. First, we hypothesized that, similar to birds, energy costs of short flights should be higher than predicted by an equation derived for bats at intermediate speeds. Second, we predicted that R. mehelyi encounters higher flight costs than R. euryale, because of its higher wing loading. Although wing loading of R. mehelyi was only 20% larger than that of R. euryale, its flight costs (2.61 ± 0.75 W; mean ± 1 SD) exceeded that of R. euryale (1.71 ± 0.37 W) by 50%. Measured flight costs were higher than predicted for R. mehelyi, but not for R. euryale. We conclude that R. mehelyi face elevated energy costs during short manoeuvring flights due to high wing loading and thus may optimize foraging efficiency by energy-conserving perch-hunting.     

Variation in biological characteristics and esterase patterns among populations of Bemisia tabaci, and the association of one population with silverleaf symptom induction

Biological characteristics (oviposition and survival rates) and esterase banding patterns in native PAGE were investigated to evaluate variation among three populations of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Reproductive capabilities of whiteflies from cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne) populations were similar on the three host plant species tested. These populations, which had the same wild-type field origin, reproduced better on either cotton and pumpkin than on poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willdenow). In contrast, poinsettia whiteflies exhibited relatively similar reproductive capabilities for the three host species tested. Pumpkin and cotton whiteflies had similar esterase banding patterns (A type), while poinsettia whiteflies yielded a different banding pattern (B type). In transmission studies, whiteflies from cotton or pumpkin sources did not induce silverleaf (SSL) or white stem (WS) symptoms in Cucurbita spp. tested. In contrast, poinsettia whiteflies were associated routinely with SSL and WS symptoms in Cucurbita spp. following colonization by whitefly adults. From these data, it was possible to correlate a specific esterase banding pattern (A or B) with reproductive capabilities and the ability to induce SSL and WS symptoms.     

Behavior of red king crab larvae: Phototaxis,geotaxis and rheotaxis

Zoeae of Paralithodes camtschatica were positively phototactic to white light intensities above 1 × 10¹³ q cm^?2 s^?1. Negative phototaxis occurred at low (1 × 10¹² q cm^?2 s^?1), but not high intensities (2.2 × 10¹⁶q cm^?2 s^?1). Phototactic response was directly related to light intensity. Zoeae also responded to red, green and blue light. Zoeae were negatively geotactic, but geotaxis was dominated by phototaxis. Horizontal swimming speed of stage 1 zoeae <4 d old was 2.4 ± 0.1 (SE) cms^?1 and decreased to 1.7 ± 0.1 cm s^?1 in older zoeae (P <0.01). Horizontal swimming speed of stage 2 zoeae was not significantly different from ≥4 d old stage 1 zoeae. Vertical swimming speed, 1.6 ± 0.1 cm s^?1, and sinking rate, 0.7 ± 0.1 cm s^?1, did not change with ontogeny. King crab zoeae were positively rheotactic and maintained position in horizontal currents less than 1.4 cm s^?1. Starvation reduced swimming and sinking rates and phototactic response.     

Intercolony variation in foraging flight characteristics of black‐headed gulls Chroicocephalus ridibundus during the incubation period

Using GPS loggers, we examined the influence of colony, sex, and bird identity on foraging flight characteristics of black‐headed gulls Chroicocephalus ridibundus during the incubation period. We studied tracks of 36 individuals breeding in one urban and two rural colonies in Poland. Birds from both rural colonies performed the furthest flights (mean max distance 8–12 km, up to 27 km) foraging mainly in agricultural areas. Gulls from the urban colony performed shorter flights (mean 5 km, up to 17 km) visiting mainly urbanized areas and water bodies. We found that females performed longer flights and their flight parameters were less repeatable compared to males. Males from both rural colonies visited water bodies more frequently than females. In all colonies, males (but not females) used habitats unproportionally to their availability in the vicinity. Relatively low interindividual and relatively high intraindividual overlap in home ranges indicated considerable foraging site fidelity. Individuals specialized in the use of a particular type of habitat performed shorter foraging flights compared to individuals using diverse habitats during their foraging flights. Our results indicate diverse foraging strategies of black‐headed gulls, including generalists that explore various habitats and specialists characterized by high foraging site and habitat fidelity.     

Individual and sex‐related patterns of prolonged flights during both day and night by great reed warblers crossing the Mediterranean Sea and Sahara Desert

A wide variety of the barrier crossing strategies exist among migrating songbirds, ranging from strict nocturnal flights to non‐stop flights over a few days. We evaluate barrier crossing strategies in a nocturnally migrating songbird crossing the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert, the great reed warbler, exploring variation between the sexes and within individuals. We used data from 31 year‐round light‐level geolocators tracks from 26 individuals (13 males and 13 females), with four individuals tracked for 2–3.5 consecutive years. Almost all individuals (25 of 26) prolonged their flights into the day at least on one occasion. The mean duration of these prolonged flights was 19.9 h and did not differ between sexes or seasons. Fifteen birds performed non‐stop flights during more than one full day and night (≥ 24 h; mean = 31.9 h; max = 55 h) in autumn and/or spring, but these flights were generally too short to cross an entire barrier (such as the Sahara Desert) in one non‐stop flight. Patterns of prolonged flights showed considerable within‐individual variation in females between seasons (autumn versus spring) and in both males and females between years, suggesting high individual flexibility in migration strategy. Significantly more males than females performed prolonged flights during autumn migration, but not spring, possibly reflecting sex‐specific carry‐over effects. We conclude that great reed warblers have the ability to conduct prolonged continuous flights for up to several nights and days, which potentially would allow them to cross the Sahara Desert in one non‐stop flight. However, they typically use a mixed strategy of several nocturnal flights with intermittent stopovers in combination with 1–3 prolonged flights. Prolonged flights covered less than half (44%) of the total flight time across the barriers, and the diurnal parts of the flights covered only 18% of this time.     

Attractiveness and competitiveness of irradiated light brown apple moths

The sterile insect technique (SIT) potentially provides a socially acceptable approach for insect eradication of new pest incursions. The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was discovered in Berkeley (CA, USA) in 2006, leading to an incursion response that included this technology. In this study, we assessed factors affecting mating success from a bisex release of irradiated moths: effects of radiation dose on male multiple mating, male flight competition, female sex pheromone titre and attractiveness of irradiated females to males, and identification of successful mating in vineyards of either irradiated or wild males (identified by isotope analysis of spermatophores from sentinel females). There was a significant negative relationship between male radiation dose and mating frequency. In head‐to‐head flights of irradiated males against non‐irradiated males to a pheromone lure in a wind tunnel, irradiated males reached the lure first only 31% of the time. With increasing radiation dose, the production of the major sex pheromone component in females, (E)‐11‐tetradecenyl acetate, dropped, from 0.7 ± 0.1 ng per female in non‐irradiated females to 0.2 ± 0.07 ng per female when irradiated at 300 Gy. Male catch was reduced to 11% of control females in traps containing females irradiated at 300 Gy. Isotope analysis of spermatophores found in the bursa copulatrix of females indicated that mating success of irradiated males inside the live (entry‐only) traps containing virgin females was lower (13.1 ± 3.3%) than suggested by male catch (21.2 ± 3.8%) in pheromone traps, the current standard for assessing field competitiveness. Impacts of irradiation on male and female moth fitness should be taken into account to improve estimates of irradiated to wild male E. postvittana overflooding ratios needed for population suppression.     

Evidence for sex-related differences in phototactic bahaviour ofStreptocephalus proboscideus (Crustacea: Anostraca)

The phototactic behaviour of adults of the Sudanese fairy shrimpStreptocephalus probiscideus was studied under laboratory conditions. Males were less negatively phototactic than females. This was also evident when colour filters were used. females only became little less negatively phototactic under yellow light, whereas males showed a strong positively phototactic response. The response to the positioning of a yellow filter was stronger than to the use of a red or blue filter for both sexes. The laboratory findings were compared with casual field observations onStreptocaphalus torvicornis that indicate differential vertical distribution between the sexes and a nocturnal vertical migration. Migratory behaviour with ascent starting at dusk is also predicted forS. proboscideus. This behaviour may reduce common stress factors in desert pools such as photodamage, visual predation pressure, and high surface temperatures.     

Flight manoeuvers used by a parasitic wasp to locate host-infested plant

Cotesia rubecula Marshall (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a specialist larval parasitoid of the butterfly Pieris rapae L. which itself feeds almost exclusively upon cruciferous plants. Female wasps are attracted to the odour of host-infested plant (plant-host complex: PHC) and the probability of flights in a wind tunnel depends on females' prior oviposition experience with the PHC and on the concentration of the PHC odour. This study considers the effect of both factors on characteristics of oriented flight upwind towards the PHC. The flight track parameters that we measured and calculated were not significantly affected by these factors. C. rubecula females exhibited high average flight velocity and relatively straight flight tracks. There was a considerable variability between individuals, however, in their odour-modulated upwind flight tracks. Some females generated a zigzagging upwind flight track similar to those commonly observed from male moths responding to female sex pheromone. Other females flew along a straight track directly upwind. The flight tracks of most female wasps were intermediate between these extremes. The full range of these flight performances was observed to all experimental treatments.     

Contrasting extreme long‐distance migration patterns in bar‐tailed godwits Limosa lapponica

Migrating birds make the longest non‐stop endurance flights in the animal kingdom. Satellite technology is now providing direct evidence on the lengths and durations of these flights and associated staging episodes for individual birds. Using this technology, we compared the migration performance of two subspecies of bar‐tailed godwit Limosa lapponica travelling between non‐breeding grounds in New Zealand (subspecies baueri) and northwest Australia (subspecies menzbieri) and breeding grounds in Alaska and eastern Russia, respectively. Individuals of both subspecies made long, usually non‐stop, flights from non‐breeding grounds to coastal staging grounds in the Yellow Sea region of East Asia (average 10 060 ± SD 290 km for baueri and 5860 ± 240 km for menzbieri). After an average stay of 41.2 ± 4.8 d, baueri flew over the North Pacific Ocean before heading northeast to the Alaskan breeding grounds (6770 ± 800 km). Menzbieri staged for 38.4 ± 2.5 d, and flew over land and sea northeast to high arctic Russia (4170 ± 370 km). The post‐breeding journey for baueri involved several weeks of staging in southwest Alaska followed by non‐stop flights across the Pacific Ocean to New Zealand (11 690 km in a complete track) or stopovers on islands in the southwestern Pacific en route to New Zealand and eastern Australia. By contrast, menzbieri returned to Australia via stopovers in the New Siberian Islands, Russia, and back at the Yellow Sea; birds travelled on average 4510 ± 360 km from Russia to the Yellow Sea, staged there for 40.8 ± 5.6 d, and then flew another 5680–7180 km to Australia (10 820 ± 300 km in total). Overall, the entire migration of the single baueri godwit with a fully completed return track totalled 29 280 km and involved 20 d of major migratory flight over a round‐trip journey of 174 d. The entire migrations of menzbieri averaged 21 940 ± 570 km, including 14 d of major migratory flights out of 154 d total. Godwits of both populations exhibit extreme flight performance, and baueri makes the longest (southbound) and second‐longest (northbound) non‐stop migratory flights documented for any bird. Both subspecies essentially make single stops when moving between non‐breeding and breeding sites in opposite hemispheres. This reinforces the critical importance of the intertidal habitats used by fuelling godwits in Australasia, the Yellow Sea, and Alaska.     

Effects of Light Intensity on the Flight Behaviour of Adult <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tirumala limniace</Emphasis> (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae)

Light intensity significantly affects insect flight behaviour. Mating of butterflies is significantly associated with flight frequency. However, no research has elucidated the effects of light intensity on butterfly flight. Thus, a clear understanding of the effects of light intensity on flight has significant theoretical implications for the cultivation and utilization of butterflies. We observed the flight behaviour of adult Tirumala limniace (Cramer) exposed to light intensities from 243 to 2240 lx and measured the frequency of flight, take-off rhythm, thoracic temperature excess (△T) when perching and flying, and the tendency for thoracic temperature to increase. Results showed that high-intensity light significantly increased flight activity, and males were more active than females under similar light intensities; strong light (1280–2240 lx) resulted in female and male butterflies taking flight earlier compared with weak light (243–864 lx); and a similar pattern was observed for flight duration, with flights by males being significantly longer than those by females at 864–2240 lx; △T of adults flying in strong light was significantly higher than in weak light, whereas the thoracic temperature of perching adults was similar to the air temperature. Compared with other light intensities, the equilibrium thoracic temperature of adults exposed to 2240 lx was higher, and the time to reach it was shorter; in addition, the △T and rate of thoracic temperature increase were higher and achieved more quickly, respectively. Thus, of the 243–2240 lx range, 2240 lx was the most optimal light intensity for adult T. limniace flight and captive rearing.     

Flight Studies on Photic Communication by the Firefly Photinus pyralis

Flash communication by the firefly Photinus pyralis was studiedin a stationary, simulated flight apparatus in which an individualof either sex could be "flown" and its flashing behavior andflight orientation recorded in response to photic stimulation.Males made long "flights" showing many of the characteristicsof their natural, female-seeking patrol flights. Males orientedtheir flight vectors towards light emitting diode (LED) flashesthat mimicked the responses of females to their patrol flashes.Females flew and responded to male-emulating LED flashes, makinga previously unknown early response followed by the typical2 sec delayed response characteristic of the dialoging perchedfemale, including abdominal aiming of the flash. Pairs consistingof males, in tethered flight, and females, perched, were runin an integrating sphere photometer, permitting the first determinationsof flash intensities of both sexes during courtship dialog.The implications of this work on thought about evolution ofphotic behavior in fireflies are considered.     

Flight directionality of Tribolium castaneum soon after take‐off under glasshouse and field conditions

Flight directionality of the rust‐red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), was investigated under glasshouse and field conditions using sticky traps placed around dense experimental infestations of T. castaneum derived from field‐collected samples. Although beetles of this species are known to fly quite readily, information on flight of beetles away from grain resources is limited. Under still glasshouse conditions, T. castaneum does not demonstrate strong horizontal or vertical trajectories in their initial flight behaviour. Flight was significantly directional in half of the replicates, but trapped beetles were only weakly concentrated around the mean direction of flight. In the field, by contrast, emigration of T. castaneum was strongly directional soon after flight initiation. The mean vector lengths were generally >0.5 which indicates that trapped beetles were strongly concentrated around the calculated mean flight direction. A circular‐circular regression of mean flight vs. mean downwind direction suggested that flight direction was generally correlated with downwind direction. The mean height at which T. castaneum individuals initially flew was 115.4 ± 7.0 cm, with 58.3% of beetles caught no more than 1 m above the ground. The height at which beetles were trapped did not correlate with wind speed at the time of sampling, but the data do indicate that wind speed significantly affected T. castaneum flight initiation, because no beetles (or very few; no more than three) were trapped in the field when the mean wind speed was above 3 m s^?1. This study thus demonstrates that wind speed and direction are both important aspects of flight behaviour of T. castaneum, and therefore of the spatio‐temporal dynamics of this species.     

Activity and migratory flights of individual free‐flying songbirds throughout the annual cycle: method and first case study

We describe a method and device (< 1.2 g) for recording, processing and storing data about activity and location of individuals of free‐living songbirds throughout the annual cycle. Activity level was determined every five minutes from five 100 ms samples of accelerometer data with 5 s between the sampling events. Activity levels were stored on an hourly basis throughout the annual cycle, allowing periods of resting/sleep, continuous flight and intermediate activity (foraging, breeding) to be distinguished. Measurements from a light sensor were stored from preprogrammed key stationary periods during the year to provide control information about geographic location. Successful results, including annual actogram, were obtained for a red‐backed shrike Lanius collurio carrying out its annual loop migration between northern Europe and southern Africa. The shrike completed its annual migration by performing > 66 (max. 73) nocturnal migratory flights (29 flights in autumn and > 37, max. 44, in spring) adding up to a total of > 434 (max. 495) flight hours. Migratory flights lasted on average 6.6 h with maximum 15.9 h. These flights were aggregated into eight travel episodes (periods of 4–11 nights when flights took place on the majority of nights). Daytime resting levels were much higher during the winter period compared to breeding and final part of spring migration. Daytime resting showed peaks during days between successive nocturnal flights across Sahara, continental Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, indicating that the bird was mostly sleeping between these long migratory flights. Annual activity and flight data for free‐living songbirds will open up many new research possibilities. Main topics that can be addressed are e.g. migratory flight performance (total flight investment, numbers and characteristics of flights), timing of stationary periods, activity patterns (resting/sleep, activity level) in different phases of the annual cycle and variability in the annual activity patterns between and within individuals.