The biogeography of the Anura of sub-equatorial Africa and the prioritisation of areas for their conservation

There is an increasing need for protected areas to conserve biodiversity efficiently. The Anura of sub-equatorial Africa have received little attention, but we quantitatively analyse a database containing presence-only data for anurans of sub-equatorial Africa to determine patterns of distribution and species richness, and discuss the roles of present and past environmental conditions in shaping these patterns. We consider the distribution of areas rich in endemic, range-restricted and Red Data Book (RDB) species to identify areas of significance to conservation. The Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and adjacent area in Mozambique, southeastern Malawi and the northern coast of KwaZulu/Natal are particularly species rich, whereas the southwestern Cape of South Africa and northwestern Zambia exhibit high degrees of endemism. Four major biogeographical sub-regions are identified, which can be further subdivided into provinces. All statistically significant, current environmental factors together account for 52.6% of species richness. Annual maximum rainfall, soil type variation, minimum temperature and range of elevation were all positively correlated with species richness. Thus, both habitat influences and history appear to have influenced patterns of anuran richness in the region. Generally, areas of high species richness coincide with those high in range-restricted, endemic and RDB species. In South Africa, the northeastern coast and southwestern Cape are hypothesised to have been both refugia and centres of speciation. Results suggest that the current reserve system in sub-equatorial Africa is inadequate for the conservation of the full complement of anuran species in the region.     

Diversity, endemism and species turnover of millipedes within the south-western Australian global biodiversity hotspot

Aim To examine how current and historical environmental gradients affect patterns of millipede (Diplopoda) endemism and species turnover in a global hotspot of floristic diversity, and to identify regions of high endemism and taxonomic distinctness for conservation management. Location South‐western Australia. Methods Museum database records of millipedes (subclasses Pentazonia and Helminthomorpha), supplemented with extensive fieldwork, were used to map species richness, species turnover (β‐diversity), weighted endemism, average taxonomic distinctness and variation in taxonomic distinctness in half‐degree grid squares (c. 2500 km²). Generalized linear models were used to examine relationships between these parameters with rainfall (present day and historical), topography and human disturbance (clearing for agriculture and urbanization). Results Millipede species richness, particularly within the order Spirostreptida, and millipede endemism were positively associated with large within‐cell differences in elevation (mountainous regions). Large variation in taxonomic distinctness (unevenness in the taxonomic tree) in higher‐rainfall areas was mainly due to speciation within the Spirostreptida genus Atelomastix. Hotspots of millipede endemism and taxonomic distinctness were identified within three categories of importance: primary (Stirling Range East, Cape Le Grand, Cape Arid, Walpole, Porongurups), secondary (Mount Manypeaks, Bremer Bay, Stirling Range West, Duke of Orleans Bay, Ravensthorpe, Albany, Busselton) and tertiary (Nornalup). A species turnover boundary was positively associated with rainfall, broadly located in the transition zone of 300–600 mm year^?1. Main conclusions The current lack of knowledge on the endemism of invertebrates hampers their incorporation into conservation planning. With this knowledge we can identify global biodiversity hotspots and, at a smaller scale, significant conservation areas within a region. Here we have shown that weighted endemism and taxonomic distinctness are useful tools in identifying centres of high endemism and speciation for millipedes within the south‐west Australian hotspot. Moreover, it is unlikely that either vertebrates or vascular plants will be useful surrogates for identifying significant areas for invertebrate conservation. While other workers have shown that vascular plants, mammals and frogs have different centres of endemism within south‐west Australia, our results show that centres of endemism for millipedes encompass all of these plus other areas.     

The coincidence of rarity and richness and the potential signature of history in centres of endemism

We investigate the relative importance of stochastic and environmental/topographic effects on the occurrence of avian centres of endemism, evaluating their potential historical importance for broad‐scale patterns in species richness across Sub‐Saharan Africa. Because species‐rich areas are more likely to be centres of endemism by chance alone, we test two null models: Model 1 calculates expected patterns of endemism using a random draw from the occurrence records of the continental assemblage, whereas Model 2 additionally implements the potential role of geometric constraints. Since Model 1 yields better quantitative predictions we use it to identify centres of endemism controlled for richness. Altitudinal range and low seasonality emerge as core environmental predictors for these areas, which contain unusually high species richness compared to other parts of sub‐Saharan Africa, even when controlled for environmental differences. This result supports the idea that centres of endemism may represent areas of special evolutionary history, probably as centres of diversification.     

Input data, analytical methods and biogeography of Elegia (Restionaceae)

Aim The aim of this paper is to determine the optimal methods for delimiting areas of endemism for Elegia L. (Restionaceae), an endemic genus of the Cape Floristic Region. We assess two methods of scoring the data (presence–absence in regular grids, or in irregular eco‐geographical regions) and three methods for locating biogeographical centres or areas of endemism, and evaluate one method for locating biotic elements. Location The Cape Floristic Region (CFR), South Africa. Methods The distribution of all 48 species of Elegia was mapped as presence–absence data on a quarter‐degree grid and on broad habitat units (eco‐geographical areas). Three methods to delimit areas of endemism were applied: parsimony analysis of endemism (PAE), phenetic cluster analysis, and NDM (‘end em ism’). In addition, we used presence–absence clustering (‘Prabclus’) to delimit biotic elements. The performances of these methods in elucidating the geographical patterns in Elegia were compared, for both types of input data, by evaluating their efficacy in maximizing the proportion of endemics and the number of areas of endemism. Results Eco‐geographical areas perform better than quarter‐degree grids. The eco‐geographical areas are potentially more likely to track the distribution of species. The phenetic approach performed best in terms of its ability to delimit areas of endemism in the study area. The species richness and the richness of range‐restricted species are each highest in the south‐western part of the CFR, decreasing to the north and east. The phytogeographical centres identified in the present study are the northern mountains, the southern mountains (inclusive of the Riviersonderend Mountains and the Cape Peninsula), the Langeberg range, the south coast, the Cape flats, and the west coast. Main conclusions This study demonstrates that (1) eco‐geographical areas should be preferred over a grid overlay in the study of biogeographical patterns, (2) phenetic clustering is the most suitable analytical method for finding areas of endemism, and (3) delimiting biotic elements does not contribute to an understanding of the biogeographical pattern in Elegia. The areas of endemism in Elegia are largely similar to those described in other studies, but there are many detailed differences.     

Phylogenetic endemism of the orchids of Megamexico reveals complementary areas for conservation

Orchid diversity provides a unique opportunity to further our understanding of biotic and abiotic factors linked to patterns of richness, endemism, and phylogenetic endemism in many regions. However, orchid diversity is consistently threatened by illegal trade and habitat transformation. Here, we identified areas critical for orchid conservation in the biogeographic province of Megamexico. For this purpose, we evaluated orchid endemism, phylogenetic diversity, and phylogenetic endemism within Megamexico and characterized orchid life forms. Our results indicate that the majority of the regions with the highest estimates of endemism and phylogenetic endemism are in southern Mexico and northern Central America, mostly located on the Pacific side of Megamexico. Among the most important orchid lineages, several belong to epiphytic lineages such as Pleurothallidinae, Laeliinae and Oncidiinae. We also found that species from diverse and distantly related lineages converge in montane forests where suitable substrates for epiphytes abound. Furthermore, the southernmost areas of phylogenetic diversity and endemism of Megamexico are in unprotected areas. Thus, we conclude that the most critical areas for orchid conservation in Megamexico are located in southern Mexico and northern Central America. We recommend that these areas should be given priority by the Mexican system of natural protected areas as complementary conservation areas.     

Phytogeography, range size and richness of Australian endemic Sauropus (Euphorbiaceae)

Aim To investigate the distribution of Australian species of Sauropus. The information obtained is used to (1) identify areas of highest richness and centres of endemism, (2) investigate latitudinal gradients of richness and range size, (3) determine the types of rarity shown, and (4) provide hypotheses on historical biogeography of the genus within Australia. Location Australia. Methods Specimens from 17 herbaria and field searches were examined and label and field information collated on distribution, habit and habitat. Distribution information was used to map all species within 784 grid cells of 1° × 1° and within the 97 Australian ‘ecological regions’. Morphometric cluster analysis of species was conducted using Kulczynski association and flexible UPGMA on 23 character states. Simple regression was used to correlate species richness, density and range size to changes in latitude. CLIMEX is used to match the climate of the region of highest richness in Australia with other areas of the world. Results Species richness was highest within the tropical north of Australia, and most species were associated with tropical savanna woodlands. Two areas were identified as centres of endemism and these corresponded closely to areas of high species richness. Four morphological groups were identified. One species (Sauropus trachyspermus) was found to be widespread, however all other species had small geographical ranges. Species richness and range size were significantly correlated with changes in latitude. Ten species were found to be of the rarest type, warranting conservation initiatives. Main conclusions Two regions of high richness and endemism of Sauropus occur, Thailand and Australia. Within Australia, the Kakadu‐Alligator River and the Cairns‐Townsville areas were identified as centres of endemism and high species richness for Sauropus. Australian Sauropus in general occur in similar communities and climates as other members of the genus elsewhere. Ten of the 27 species of Australian endemic Sauropus are extremely rare and warrant conservation initiatives. Correlations of latitude to species richness are potentially due to Sauropus radiating from the climatically stable top end of Australia. Increasing range size in more southern latitudes may also be due to stability of climates in the top end or because there is more available land area at these latitudes. Sauropus micranthus, the only non‐endemic species, is probably a more recent invader from the Tertiary period when tropical rain forests where more extensive and congruent with those of New Guinea.     

Biodiversity and biogeography of southern temperate and polar bryozoans

Aim To describe the distribution of biodiversity and endemism of bryozoans in southern temperate and polar waters. We hypothesized that we would find: (1) no strong latitudinal richness gradient; (2) striking contrasts in richness and endemism between clades and between regions; and (3) that faunal similarity of regions would cluster geographically around each southern continent. Location South Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans and the Southern Ocean. Methods We constructed a data base from known literature, regional data bases and recent finds. We regionalized each southern continent, calculated levels of richness and endemism for each region and continent, and used primer 5 to perform multivariate statistical analysis. Results A third (1681) of global bryozoan species described occur south of 30° S, of which c. 87% were cheilostomes. In richness we found no latitudinal cline and change across longitude was stronger. New Zealand was richest and had the most (60%) endemic species, followed by Antarctica at 57%. There were striking contrasts in regional richness and endemism between clades but the highest levels of between‐region similarity were around Antarctica. The timing of past continent connectivity was reflected. Main conclusions Bryozoans show strong hemispherical asymmetry in richness and, like molluscs and corals, decrease away from Australasia rather than with latitude. Species endemism is much lower in Antarctic bryozoans than previously thought, and as this taxon is not particularly dispersive and is now amongst the best studied regionally, maybe Antarctic endemism in general is lower and Antarctica less cut‐off to species dispersal than previously thought. However, Antarctic generic endemism is double the level previously calculated and regional faunal similarities are much higher than around other continents – both reflecting long‐term isolation. Bryozoans, in contrast to the paradigm of Antarctic fauna, may be fairly robust to predicted climate change. Paradoxically, they may also be one of the best taxa to monitor to sensitively detect marine benthic responses.     

Distribution of South African marine benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas

Available data on species distributions and endemicity were compiled and examined for 11 groups of South African marine invertebrates (2533 species). For five groups species richness adhered to a well‐documented pattern, increasing from west to east, but for the other groups species richness was highest along the south coast. Endemicity was generally highest along the south coast, and lowest along the east coast. The data base was then analysed using several types of complementarity analyses, each producing a minimum set of potential reserve areas, which cumulatively represent all invertebrate species analysed. Approaches based solely on rarity, species richness and endemicity demonstrated individual biases, suggesting a need to combine all three interests. Combining the three techniques produced similar results to the individual analyses, showing conservation priorities to be highest along the east coast. Specifically, the areas of Port Elizabeth and Durban were ranked high in all analyses. Consistently, a total of 16 sites was necessary to represent all species analysed. Comparisons with similar analyses on fish and seaweeds revealed similar findings. Existing invertebrate records were shown to be biased towards centres of high sampling activity, demonstrating a need of future sampling attention in under‐represented areas.     

Patterns of plant diversity in Africa south of the Sahara and their implications for conservation management

Plant species richness and range-size rarity in Africa south of the Sahara is concentrated in centres of plant diversity and endemism. Distribution patterns of plants mapped in the Distributiones Plantarum Africanum series and selected taxonomic monographs are analysed using the computer programme WORLDMAP. The plants are divided into four groups: herbaceous geophytes, mesophytic herbs, light-demanding shrubs and woody genera. Each group has peaks of species richness and range-size rarity at locations different to the other groups. Herbaceous geophytes and mesophytic herbs have their peaks of species richness and range-size rarity in the same location, the western Cape for geophytes and the Crystal Mountain for mesophytic herbs, whereas light-demanding shrubs and woody genera have peaks in different places. The results are discussed in relation to possible factors determining species richness and endemism and their likely conservation significance.     

Areas of endemism and patterns of diversity for aphids of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas

Aim  The study aimed to identify areas of endemism for aphids in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas (QTPH), and to test congruence between patterns of endemism and patterns of overall species richness identified in a previous study.
Location  The QTPH.
Methods  A distribution data base of 326 endemic aphids in the QTPH was compiled. The study area was divided into a grid of 2°× 2° operative geographical units. Parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) was used to identify areas of endemism, and the diversity patterns of endemic species were then mapped using GIS.
Results  We identified 326 endemic species belonging to 138 genera within Adelgidae and 14 subfamilies of Aphididae. Five areas of endemism were found using PAE analysis: the eastern Himalayas, the western Himalayas, north-western Yunnan, southern Tibet and the eastern QTPH. Maps of patterns of endemism identified four major centres for endemic aphids, namely the western Himalayas, the eastern Himalayas (or Sikkim-Assam Himalayas), north-western Hengduan Mountains and the mountains of southern Gansu Province, and three minor centres, southern Tibet, south-eastern Tibet and the eastern Qinghai Province in the north-eastern QTPH.
Main conclusions  Our study identifies major centres of aphid endemism. Furthermore, there is a noticeable congruence between patterns of endemism and patterns of species richness. The patterns of endemism were most likely influenced by the recent uplift of the QTPH.     

Identifying hotspots of endemic woody seed plant diversity in China

Aim This study aimed to detect distribution patterns and identify diversity hotspots for Chinese endemic woody seed plant species (CEWSPS). Location China. Methods Presence of 6885 CEWSPS throughout China was mapped by taking the Chinese administrative county as the basic spatial analysis unit. The diversity was measured with five indices: endemic richness (ER), weighted endemism (WE), phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE) and biogeographically weighted evolutionary distinctiveness (BED). Three levels of area (i.e. 1, 5 and 10% of China’s total land area) were used to identify hotspots, but the 5% level was preferred when both the total area of the hotspots identified and the diversity of CEWSPS reached by the hotspots were considered. Results Distribution patterns of CEWSPS calculated with the five indices are consistent with each other over the national extent. However, the hotspots do not show a high degree of consistency among the results derived from the five indices. Those identified with ER and PD are very similar, and so are those with WE and BED. In total, 20 hotspots covering 7.9% of China’s total land area were identified, among which 11 were identified with all the five indices, including the Hengduan Mountains, Xishuangbanna Region, Hainan Island, and eight mountainous areas located in east Chongqing and west Hubei, in east Yunnan and west Guangxi, in north Guangxi, south‐east Guizhou and south‐west Hunan, in north Guangdong and south Hunan, in south‐east Tibet, and in south‐east Hubei and north‐west Jiangxi. Taiwan Island was also identified as a major hotspot with WE, PE and BED. Main conclusions Hotspots of CEWSPS were identified with five indices considering both distributional and phylogenetic information. They cover most of the key areas of biodiversity defined by previous researchers using other approaches. This further verifies the importance of these areas for China’s biodiversity conservation.     

Taxic Richness Patterns and Conservation Evaluation of Madagascan Tiger Beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae)

Distributional ranges of 17 genera and 172 species of Malagasy tiger beetles (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae) have been compiled to determine patterns of species richness and endemism. These patterns reveal large sampling gaps, and potential priority areas for conservation action. Northern and south-western parts of the island are richer in genera, whereas eastern and especially northern parts of the rainforest show higher species richness, due to extensive radiations within the genera Pogonostoma and Physodeutera. A set of 23 areas are identified in this study as priority foci for tiger beetle conservation, and six general regions are bioinventory priorities.     

Does biogeographical history matter? Diversity and distribution of lotic midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) in the Australian Wet Tropics

Abstract We examined broad scale patterns of diversity and distribution of lotic Chironomidae (Diptera) within the Wet Tropics bioregion of northern Queensland, Australia. Field surveys across broad latitudinal and altitudinal gradients within the Wet Tropics revealed a fauna of 87 species‐level taxa in 49 genera comprising three main elements: a small genuinely tropical fraction, and larger cosmopolitan and Gondwanan components. The latter group originated when Australia, as part of the ancient Gondwana supercontinent, was situated over Antarctic latitudes with a cooler, wetter climate than today. In the Wet Tropics, cool Gondwanan taxa occurred predominantly in upland and shaded lowland sites, but no species appeared narrowly temperature restricted, and there was no faunal zonation with altitude. Most chironomid species occurred at all latitudes within the Wet Tropics, with no evidence for an enduring effect of the historical rainforest contractions on current‐day distribution patterns. These findings contrast with those for aquatic faunas elsewhere in the world and for the terrestrial Wet Tropics fauna. We relate this to the generally broad environmental tolerances of Australian chironomids, and comment on why the latitudinal diversity gradient does not apply to the Australian chironomid fauna.     

Biogeographical patterns of endemic terrestrial Afrotropical birds

Biogeographical zones are described for terrestrial bird species endemic to the Afrotropics using up‐to‐date distributional data and multivariate statistical techniques. This provides an objective basis for a hierarchy of subregions, provinces and districts, based on a set of rules. Results are compared to previous studies at continental and regional scales. Biogeographical zones for passerines and non‐passerines are compared and found to be similar. Peaks of species richness and narrow endemism are described for the six major subdivisions (subregions) identified by the cluster analysis. Coincidence of peaks of species richness and narrow endemism is found to be low, such that areas selected to represent high species richness tallies will often fail to represent narrow endemics. Strong regionalization of Afrotropical birds indicates the need to use a biogeographical framework in conservation priority setting exercises to ensure that unique, but species‐poor, avifaunas are not neglected.     

Centers of endemism and diversity patterns for typhlocybine leafhoppers （Hemiptera： Cicadellidae： Typhlocybinae） in China

This study identifies ＇centers of endemism＇ for typhlocybine leafhoppers in China, revealing diversity patterns and congruence of patterns between total species rich- ness and endemism. Distribution patterns of 774 Typhlocybinae （607 described and 167 undescribed species） were mapped on a 1.5° × 1.5° latitude/longitude grid. Total species richness, endemic species richness and weighted endemism richness were calculated for each grid cell. Grid cells within the top 5% highest values of weighted endemism richness were considered as ＇centers of endemism＇. Diversity patterns by latitude and altitude were obtained through calculating the gradient richness. A congruence of diversity patterns between total species richness and endemism was confirmed using correlation analysis. To investigate the bioclimatic factors （19 variables） contributing to the congruence be- tween total species richness and endemism, we compared the factor＇s difference between non-endemic and endemic species using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Eleven centers of en- demism, roughly delineated by mountain ranges, were identified in central and southern China, including the south Yunnan, Hengduan Mountains, Qinling Mountains, Hainan Is- land, Taiwan Island and six mountain areas located in western Sichuan, northwest Fujian, southeast Guizhou, southeast Hunan, central and western Guangdong, and north Zhejiang. Total species richness and endemic species richness decreased with increased latitude and had a consistent unimodal response to altitude. The proportions of endemism decreased with increased latitude and increased with rising altitude. Diversity patterns between total species richness and endemism were highly consistent, and ＇Precipitation of Coldest Pe- riod＇ and ＇Temperature of Coldest Period＇ may contribute to the congruence of pattern. Migration ability may play a role in the relationship of endemism and species richness; climate, environment factors and important geologic isolation events can also play crucial effect     

Regional biogeography of shallow reef fish and macro-invertebrate communities in the Galapagos archipelago

Aim To delineate biogeographical patterns in Galapagos shallow‐water reef fauna at regional scales. Location Galapagos Islands. Methods Fishes and macro‐invertebrates were quantitatively censused using underwater visual techniques along more than 500 transects at defined depth strata across the Galapagos archipelago. Data were analysed using multivariate techniques to define regional patterns and identify species typical of different regions. Results Subtidal communities of fishes and macro‐invertebrates on shallow reefs differed consistently in species composition across the Galapagos archipelago, with three major biogeographical groupings: (1) the ‘far‐northern area’ containing the islands of Darwin and Wolf, (2) the ‘central/south‐eastern area’, including the east coast of Isabela, and (3) the ‘western area’, encompassing Fernandina and western Isabela. In addition, the northern islands of Pinta, Marchena and Genovesa form a separate region in the central/south‐eastern area, and Bahia Elizabeth and Canal Bolivar separate from other parts of the western area. The far‐northern bioregion is characterized by high fish species richness overall, including a high proportion of species of Indo‐Pacific origin. However, very few endemic fishes or species with distributions extending south from Ecuador (‘Peruvian’ species) are present, and the bioregion also possesses relatively low species richness of mobile macro‐invertebrate taxa. By contrast, the ‘western’ bioregion possesses disproportionately high numbers of endemic fish taxa, high numbers of cool‐temperate Peruvian fish species, and high invertebrate species richness, but very few species of Indo‐Pacific origin. The Bahia Elizabeth/Canal Bolivar bioregion possesses more endemic species and fewer species with Peruvian affinities than coasts within the western bioregion. The northern bioregion of Pinta, Marchena and Genovesa represents an overlap zone with affinities to both the far‐northern and south‐eastern islands. The south‐eastern bioregion includes species from a variety of different sources, particularly ‘Panamic’ species with distributions extending north to Central America. Main conclusions On the basis of congruent divisions for reef fish and macro‐invertebrate communities, the Galapagos archipelago can be separated into three major biogeographical areas, two of which can be further subdivided into two regions. Each of these five bioregions possesses communities characterized by a distinctive mix of species derived from Indo‐Pacific, Panamic, Peruvian and endemic source areas. The conservation significance of different regions is not reflected in counts of total species richness. The regions with the lowest overall fish species richness possess a temperate rather than tropical climate and highest levels of endemism.     

The influence of sampling intensity on the perception of the spatial distribution of tropical diversity and endemism: a case study of ferns from Bolivia

The distribution of tropical plant and animal diversity is still poorly documented, especially at spatial resolutions of practical use for conservation. In the present study, we evaluated the level to which geographical incomplete data availability of species occurrence affects the perception of biodiversity patterns (species richness and endemism) among pteridophytes in Bolivia. We used a data base of Bolivian pteridophytes (27,501 records), divided it into three time periods (1900–70, up to 1990 and up to 2006), and created grid-files at 15'-resolution for species richness and endemism. For each of these biodiversity properties we estimated the species richness (Chao 2) and the index of sampling completeness (C index) per grid, and then all these variables at both species richness and endemism were correlated. Patterns of richness were fairly consistent along all periods; the richest areas were placed along the humid-montane forest, even though they were strongly influenced by collecting intensity. Endemism had a lower degree of correlation with collecting intensity, but varied much more strongly through time than species richness. According to the C index, which gives the ratio between estimated (by Chao 2) and recorded values of species richness and endemism, both biodiversity properties tended to be undersampled in the richest grid cells. Inter-temporal correlations showed sharper differences of correlations for endemism than species richness. Consequently, already in 1970, botanists had a correct idea of the spatial distribution of pteridophyte richness in Bolivia (even though the magnitude was grossly underestimated). In contrast, patterns of endemism, which are of high conservation importance, may not even today be reliably known.     

Assessing endemism at multiple spatial scales, with an example from the Australian vascular flora

Aim  To develop an approach for assessing the spatial scale of centres of endemism among species level data.
Location Australia.
Methods  Endemism is inherently scale dependent. Therefore, the Corrected Weighted Endemism (CWE) index used by Crisp et al. [ J. Biogeogr. (2001)28:183] is extended to account for species samples in local neighbourhoods as a Spatial CWE index. This then allows an analysis of how the degree of endemism of a location (cell) changes with spatial scale. The quality of the Spatial CWE index results are assessed using three spatial randomizations at the species level with and without preserving species richness and distributional patterns. We show that CWE is equivalent to beta diversity and predict that it should show high rates of change around centres of endemism.
Results  Similar patterns to those found by Crisp et al. using a data set of vascular flora from Australia are retrieved, but the extent to which they are scale dependent is more easily identified. For example, the Central Australian centre discounted by Crisp et al. is identified when a three-cell radius neighbourhood is used. However, the level of endemism in this centre is no greater than in the margins of many of the coastal centres of endemism. Most of the identified centres of endemism are better than random at all scales and are increasingly so as the spatial scale increases. As predicted, the highest rate of change in Spatial CWE (beta diversity) is most often between zero- and one-cell radius neighbours in most centres of endemism.
Main conclusions  The explicit incorporation of geographical space in analyses allows for a greater understanding of the scale-dependence of phenomena, in this case endemism and beta diversity.     

Presence and absence of non‐native fish species in the Wet Tropics region,Australia

Distributional records of non‐native fish species were identified in the Wet Tropics region, Far North Queensland, Australia, through a compilation of published records and expert knowledge. A total of 1106 records were identified comprising 346 presence and four uncertain records for at least 13 species, and 756 absence records. All current presence records consist of six species from the families Cichlidae and Poeciliidae with established self‐sustaining populations in the region, probably affecting the highly diverse native fish fauna.     

Deeply divergent mitochondrial lineages reveal patterns of local endemism in chironomids of the Australian Wet Tropics

The Wet Tropics bioregion of north‐eastern Australia has been subject to extensive fluctuations in climate throughout the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Cycles of rainforest contraction and expansion of dry sclerophyll forest associated with such climatic fluctuations are postulated to have played a major role in driving geographical endemism in terrestrial rainforest taxa. Consequences for the distributions of aquatic organisms, however, are poorly understood. The Australian non‐biting midge species Echinocladius martini Cranston (Diptera: Chironomidae), although restricted to cool, well‐forested freshwater streams, has been considered to be able to disperse among populations located in isolated rainforest pockets during periods of sclerophyllous forest expansion, potentially limiting the effect of climatic fluctuations on patterns of endemism. In this study, mitochondrial COI and 16S data were analysed for E. martini collected from eight sites spanning the Wet Tropics bioregion to assess the scale and extent of phylogeographic structure. Analyses of genetic structure showed several highly divergent cryptic lineages with restricted geographical distributions. Within one of the identified lineages, strong genetic structure implied that dispersal among proximate (<1 km apart) streams was extremely restricted. The results suggest that vicariant processes, most likely due to the systemic drying of the Australian continent during the Plio‐Pleistocene, might have fragmented historical E. martini populations and, hence, promoted divergence in allopatry.