Forces of a single-beam gradient laser trap on a dielectric sphere in the ray optics regime

We calculate the forces of single-beam gradient radiation pressure laser traps, also called “optical tweezers,” on micron-sized dielectric spheres in the ray optics regime. This serves as a simple model system for describing laser trapping and manipulation of living cells and organelles within cells. The gradient and scattering forces are defined for beams of complex shape in the ray-optics limit. Forces are calculated over the entire cross-section of the sphere using TEM₀₀ and TEM₀₁^* mode input intensity profiles and spheres of varying index of refraction. Strong uniform traps are possible with force variations less than a factor of 2 over the sphere cross-section. For a laser power of 10 mW and a relative index of refraction of 1.2 we compute trapping forces as high as ~ 1.2 × 10^-6 dynes in the weakest (backward) direction of the gradient trap. It is shown that good trapping requires high convergence beams from a high numerical aperture objective. A comparison is given of traps made using bright field or differential interference contrast optics and phase contrast optics.     

Experimentally manipulating fungi with optical tweezers

A short review of the use of optical tweezers in fungal cell biological research is provided. First, we describe how optical tweezers work. Second, we review how they have been used in various experimental live-cell studies to manipulate intracellular organelles, hyphal growth and branching, and whole cells. Third, we indicate how optically trapped microbeads can be used for the localized delivery of chemicals or mechanical stimulation to cells, as well as permitting measurements of the growth forces generated by germ tubes. Finally, the effects of optical trapping on fungal cell viability and growth are assessed. Parts of this review were presented at the Mycological Society of Japan (MSJ) / British Mycological Society (BMS) Joint Symposium, “The new generation mycologists in Japan and the UK” held in Chiba, Japan on June 3, 2006.     

Single-molecule manipulation of macromolecules on GUV or SUV membranes using optical tweezers

Despite their wide applications in soluble macromolecules, optical tweezers have rarely been used to characterize the dynamics of membrane proteins, mainly due to the lack of model membranes compatible with optical trapping. Here, we examined optical trapping and mechanical properties of two potential model membranes, giant and small unilamellar vesicles (GUVs and SUVs, respectively) for studies of membrane protein dynamics. We found that optical tweezers can stably trap GUVs containing iodixanol with controlled membrane tension. The trapped GUVs with high membrane tension can serve as a force sensor to accurately detect reversible folding of a DNA hairpin or membrane binding of synaptotagmin-1 C2AB domain attached to the GUV. We also observed that SUVs are rigid enough to resist large pulling forces and are suitable for detecting protein conformational changes induced by force. Our methodologies may facilitate single-molecule manipulation studies of membrane proteins using optical tweezers.     

Characterization of Photoactivated Singlet Oxygen Damage in Single-Molecule Optical Trap Experiments

Optical traps or “tweezers” use high-power, near-infrared laser beams to manipulate and apply forces to biological systems, ranging from individual molecules to cells. Although previous studies have established that optical tweezers induce photodamage in live cells, the effects of trap irradiation have yet to be examined in vitro, at the single-molecule level. In this study, we investigate trap-induced damage in a simple system consisting of DNA molecules tethered between optically trapped polystyrene microspheres. We show that exposure to the trapping light affects the lifetime of the tethers, the efficiency with which they can be formed, and their structure. Moreover, we establish that these irreversible effects are caused by oxidative damage from singlet oxygen. This reactive state of molecular oxygen is generated locally by the optical traps in the presence of a sensitizer, which we identify as the trapped polystyrene microspheres. Trap-induced oxidative damage can be reduced greatly by working under anaerobic conditions, using additives that quench singlet oxygen, or trapping microspheres lacking the sensitizers necessary for singlet state photoexcitation. Our findings are relevant to a broad range of trap-based single-molecule experiments—the most common biological application of optical tweezers—and may guide the development of more robust experimental protocols.     

活细胞染色体切割（光刀）和光捕捉（光钳）的研究

本文报道了光捕捉活细胞染色体的最新实验结果。对ＰＴＫ＿２有丝分裂细胞的染色体先围激光刀切割,再用光钳捕捉使该切割的染色体片断的行为发生改变。光捕捉中期切割的染色体片断有可能使它们整合到同一个子细胞中或丢失在分裂沟中。光捕捉后期切割的染色体可使该切割片断或掺入相反的细胞中或丢失在分裂沟中或回到原有的相应子细胞中。光捕捉操纵染色体去水螈肺上支子细胞中不仅同样有效,还可以在纺缍体的边缘,即纺缍体和间丝笼之间的细胞质清澈区域内用光钳操纵染色体片断移动,旋转。根据细胞和染色体形态和行为,对７００－８４０ｎｍ波长范围内的各种波长的光捕捉进行了比较,结果表明,７００ｎｍ或８００－８２０ｎｍ波长操纵的细胞,出现最少的异常细胞百分率,７６０ｎｍ则诱发百分之百的异常细胞率。根据各方面的综合比较,７００ｎｍ为最佳波长,共次为１０６０和８００ｎｍ。７６０ｎｍ损伤细胞最严重,应避免使用。文中并讨论了光捕捉染色体的应用前景。     

Preferential attachment of membrane glycoproteins to the cytoskeleton at the leading edge of lamella

The active forward movement of cells is often associated with the rearward transport of particles over the surfaces of their lamellae. Unlike the rest of the lamella, we found that the leading edge (within 0.5 microns of the cell boundary) is specialized for rearward transport of membrane-bound particles, such as Con A-coated latex microspheres. Using a single-beam optical gradient trap (optical tweezers) to apply restraining forces to particles, we can capture, move and release particles at will. When first bound on the central lamellar surface, Con A-coated particles would diffuse randomly; when such bound particles were brought to the leading edge of the lamella with the optical tweezers, they were often transported rearward. As in our previous studies, particle transport occurred with a concurrent decrease in apparent diffusion coefficient, consistent with attachment to the cytoskeleton. For particles at the leading edge of the lamella, weak attachment to the cytoskeleton and transport occurred with a half-time of 3 s; equivalent particles elsewhere on the lamella showed no detectable attachment when monitored for several minutes. Particles held on the cell surface by the laser trap attached more strongly to the cytoskeleton with time. These particles could escape a trapping force of 0.7 X 10(-6) dyne after 18 +/- 14 (sd) s at the leading edge, and after 64 +/- 34 (SD) s elsewhere on the lamella. Fluorescent succinylated Con A staining showed no corresponding concentration of general glycoproteins at the leading edge, but cytochalasin D-resistant filamentous actin was found at the leading edge. Our results have implications for cell motility: if the forces used for rearward particle transport were applied to a rigid substratum, cells would move forward. Such a mechanism would be most efficient if the leading edge of the cell contained preferential sites for attachment and transport.     

Single beam optical trapping integrated in a confocal microscope for biological applications.

Confocal microscopy is very useful in biology because of its three dimensional imaging capacities and has proven to be an excellent tool to study the 3D organization of, for instance, cell structures. This property of confocal microscopy makes it also very suitable for observation during guidance of the three dimensional manipulation of single cells or cell elements. Therefore we decided to integrate a confocal microscope and a single beam optical manipulator into a single instrument. The advantage of optical manipulation over mechanical techniques is that it is non-invasive and therefore may be applied on living (micro-) organisms and cells. The creation of an effective single beam optical trap requires the use of a high numerical aperture (N.A.) objective to focus the laser beam. In this paper we briefly discuss the vertical or axial force exerted on a sphere in a single beam trap. The axial force on a sphere placed on the optical axis, caused by reflection and refraction, is calculated applying a electromagnetic vector diffraction theory to determine the field distribution in the focal region. One of the results is that the particle also experiences a vertical trapping force towards the focusing lens when it is in the strongly convergent part of the field in addition to the known negative signed trapping force in the divergent part of the field. Further we describe an instrumental approach to realize optical trapping in which the optical trap position is controlled by moving the focusing objective only.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Mechanical Forces Impeding Exocytotic Surfactant Release Revealed by Optical Tweezers

The release of surfactant from alveolar type II cells is essential to lower the surface tension in the lung and to facilitate inspiration. However, the factors controlling dispersal and diffusion of this hydrophobic material are still poorly understood. Here we report that release of surfactant from the fused vesicle, termed lamellar body (LB), resisted mechanical forces applied by optical tweezers: At constant trapping force, the probability to expand LB contents, i.e., to “pull” surfactant into the extracellular fluid, increased with time after LB fusion with the plasma membrane, consistent with slow fusion pore expansion in these cells. Elevations of the cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_c) had a similar effect. Inasmuch as surfactant did not disintegrate in the extracellular space, this method permitted for the first time the determination of elastic and recoil properties of the macromolecular complex, yielding a spring constant of ~12.5 pN/μm. This is the first functional evidence that release of hydrophobic material is mechanically impeded and occurs in an “all-or-none” fashion. This mode of release is most probably the result of cohesive forces of surfactant, combined with adhesive forces and/or retaining forces exerted by a constrictive fusion pore acting as a regulated mechanical barrier, withstanding forces up to 160 pN. In independent experiments equiaxial strain was exerted on cells without optical tweezers. Strain facilitated surfactant release from preexisting fused vesicles, consistent with the view of mechanical impediments during the release process, which can be overcome by cell strain.     

Measuring intermolecular rupture forces with a combined TIRF-optical trap microscope and DNA curtains

We report a new approach to probing DNA-protein interactions by combining optical tweezers with a high-throughput DNA curtains technique. Here we determine the forces required to remove the individual lipid-anchored DNA molecules from the bilayer. We demonstrate that DNA anchored to the bilayer through a single biotin-streptavidin linkage withstands ∼20 pN before being pulled free from the bilayer, whereas molecules anchored to the bilayer through multiple attachment points can withstand ?65 pN; access to this higher force regime is sufficient to probe the responses of protein-DNA interactions to force changes. As a proof-of-principle, we concurrently visualized DNA-bound fluorescently-tagged RNA polymerase while simultaneously stretching the DNA molecules. This work presents a step towards a powerful experimental platform that will enable concurrent visualization of DNA curtains while applying defined forces through optical tweezers.     

Optical tweezers based force measurement system for quantitating binding interactions: system design and application for the study of bacterial adhesion

An optical force measurement system for quantitating forces in the pN range between micrometer-sized objects has been developed. The system was based upon optical tweezers in combination with a sensitive position detection system and constructed around an inverted microscope. A trapped particle in the focus of the high numerical aperture microscope-objective behaves like an omnidirectional mechanical spring in response to an external force. The particle's displacement from the equilibrium position is therefore a direct measure of the exerted force. A weak probe laser beam, focused directly below the trapping focus, was used for position detection of the trapped particle (a polystyrene bead). The bead and the condenser focus the light to a distinct spot in the far field, monitored by a position sensitive detector. Various calibration procedures were implemented in order to provide absolute force measurements. The system has been used to measure the binding forces between Escherichia coli bacterial adhesins and galabiose-functionalized beads.     

Optical tweezer micromanipulation of filamentous fungi

Optical tweezers have been little used in experimental studies on filamentous fungi. We have built a simple, compact, easy-to-use, safe and robust optical tweezer system that can be used with brightfield, phase contrast, differential interference contrast and fluorescence optics on a standard research grade light microscope. We have used this optical tweezer system in a range of cell biology applications to trap and micromanipulate whole fungal cells, organelles within cells, and beads. We have demonstrated how optical tweezers can be used to: unambiguously determine whether hyphae are actively homing towards each other; move the Spitzenkörper and change the pattern of hyphal morphogenesis; make piconewton force measurements; mechanically stimulate hyphal tips; and deliver chemicals to localized regions of hyphae. Significant novel experimental findings from our study were that germ tubes generated significantly smaller growth forces than leading hyphae, and that both hyphal types exhibited growth responses to mechanical stimulation with optically trapped polystyrene beads. Germinated spores that had been optically trapped for 25 min exhibited no deleterious effects with regard to conidial anastomosis tube growth, homing or fusion.     

Versatile laser‐based cell manipulator

Here we describe a two‐photon microscope and laser ablation setup combined with optical tweezers. We tested the setup on the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a commonly used model organism. We show that long‐term imaging can be achieved without significant photo‐bleaching or damage of the sample. The setup can precisely ablate sub‐micrometer structures, such as microtubules and mitotic spindles, inside living cells, which remain viable after the manipulation. Longer exposure times lead to ablation, while shorter exposures lead to photo‐bleaching of the target structure. We used optical tweezers to trap intracellular particles and to displace the cell nucleus. Two‐photon fluorescence imaging of the manipulated cell can be performed simultaneously with trapping. The combination of techniques described here may help to solve a variety of problems in cell biology, such as positioning of organelles and the forces exerted by the cytoskeleton. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Analysis of force generation during flagellar assembly through optical trapping of free-swimming Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Many studies have used velocity measurements, waveform analyses, and theoretical flagella models to investigate the establishment, maintenance, and function of flagella of the biflagellate green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. We report the first direct measurement of Chlamydomonas flagellar swimming force. Using an optical trap ("optical tweezers") we detect a 75% decrease in swimming force between wild type (CC124) cells and mutants lacking outer flagellar dynein arms (oda1). This difference is consistent with previous estimates and validates the force measurement approach. To examine mechanisms underlying flagella organization and function, we deflagellated cells and examined force generation during flagellar regeneration. As expected, fully regenerated flagella are functionally equivalent to flagella of untreated wild type cells. However, analysis of swimming force vs. flagella length and the increase in force over regeneration time reveals intriguing patterns where increases in force do not always correspond with increases in length. These investigations of flagellar force, therefore, contribute to the understanding of Chlamydomonas motility, describe phenomena surrounding flagella regeneration, and demonstrate the advantages of the optical trapping technique in studies of cell motility.     

Strong and High-Precision Manipulation of Nanoparticle with Graphene-Coated Fiber Systems

Two kinds of graphene-coated fiber systems are proposed and studied for optical trapping. Their plasmonic modes in uniform environment and close to the substrate are studied in the finite element method. The optical forces exerted on dielectric nanoparticle by these systems are calculated by standalone waveguide approximation. It is found that for the dielectric particle with diameter of 1 nm, the maximal optical forces generated by certain modes are more than 10⁷ fN/W whereas their force ranges are only one to several nanometers. These results may have important applications in strong and high-precision optical tweezers.

     

Characterization of photodamage to escherichia coli in optical traps

Optical tweezers (infrared laser-based optical traps) have emerged as a powerful tool in molecular and cell biology. However, their usefulness has been limited, particularly in vivo, by the potential for damage to specimens resulting from the trapping laser. Relatively little is known about the origin of this phenomenon. Here we employed a wavelength-tunable optical trap in which the microscope objective transmission was fully characterized throughout the near infrared, in conjunction with a sensitive, rotating bacterial cell assay. Single cells of Escherichia coli were tethered to a glass coverslip by means of a single flagellum: such cells rotate at rates proportional to their transmembrane proton potential (. J. Mol. Biol. 138:541-561). Monitoring the rotation rates of cells subjected to laser illumination permits a rapid and quantitative measure of their metabolic state. Employing this assay, we characterized photodamage throughout the near-infrared region favored for optical trapping (790-1064 nm). The action spectrum for photodamage exhibits minima at 830 and 970 nm, and maxima at 870 and 930 nm. Damage was reduced to background levels under anaerobic conditions, implicating oxygen in the photodamage pathway. The intensity dependence for photodamage was linear, supporting a single-photon process. These findings may help guide the selection of lasers and experimental protocols best suited for optical trapping work.     

Towards biological applications of nanophotonic tweezers

Optical trapping (synonymous with optical tweezers) has become a core biophysical technique widely used for interrogating fundamental biological processes on size scales ranging from the single-molecule to the cellular level. Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of ‘nanophotonic tweezers,’ an exciting new class of ‘on-chip’ optical traps. Here, we describe how nanophotonic tweezers are making optical trap technology more broadly accessible and bringing unique biosensing and manipulation capabilities to biological applications of optical trapping.     

Single-molecule force spectroscopy: optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers and atomic force microscopy

Single-molecule force spectroscopy has emerged as a powerful tool to investigate the forces and motions associated with biological molecules and enzymatic activity. The most common force spectroscopy techniques are optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers and atomic force microscopy. Here we describe these techniques and illustrate them with examples highlighting current capabilities and limitations.     

Magnetic tweezers: micromanipulation and force measurement at the molecular level

Cantilevers and optical tweezers are widely used for micromanipulating cells or biomolecules for measuring their mechanical properties. However, they do not allow easy rotary motion and can sometimes damage the handled material. We present here a system of magnetic tweezers that overcomes those drawbacks while retaining most of the previous dynamometers properties. Electromagnets are coupled to a microscope-based particle tracking system through a digital feedback loop. Magnetic beads are first trapped in a potential well of stiffness approximately 10(-7) N/m. Thus, they can be manipulated in three dimensions at a speed of approximately 10 microm/s and rotated along the optical axis at a frequency of 10 Hz. In addition, our apparatus can work as a dynamometer relying on either usual calibration against the viscous drag or complete calibration using Brownian fluctuations. By stretching a DNA molecule between a magnetic particle and a glass surface, we applied and measured vertical forces ranging from 50 fN to 20 pN. Similarly, nearly horizontal forces up to 5 pN were obtained. From those experiments, we conclude that magnetic tweezers represent a low-cost and biocompatible setup that could become a suitable alternative to the other available micromanipulators.     

Quantitative measurement of changes in adhesion force involving focal adhesion kinase during cell attachment, spread, and migration

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a critical protein for the regulation of integrin-mediated cellular functions and it can enhance cell motility in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells by hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) induction. We utilized optical trapping and cytodetachment techniques to measure the adhesion force between pico-Newton and nano-Newton (nN) for quantitatively investigating the effects of FAK on adhesion force during initial binding (5 s), beginning of spreading (30 min), spreadout (12 h), and migration (induced by HGF) in MDCK cells with overexpressed FAK (FAK-WT), FAK-related non-kinase (FRNK), as well as normal control cells. Optical tweezers was used to measure the initial binding force between a trapped cell and glass coverslide or between a trapped bead and a seeded cell. In cytodetachment, the commercial atomic force microscope probe with an appropriate spring constant was used as a cyto-detacher to evaluate the change of adhesion force between different FAK expression levels of cells in spreading, spreadout, and migrating status. The results demonstrated that FAK-WT significantly increased the adhesion forces as compared to FRNK cells throughout all the different stages of cell adhesion. For cells in HGF-induced migration, the adhesion force decreased to almost the same level (approximately 600 nN) regardless of FAK levels indicating that FAK facilitates cells to undergo migration by reducing the adhesion force. Our results suggest FAK plays a role of enhancing cell adhesive ability in the binding and spreading, but an appropriate level of adhesion force is required for HGF-induced cell migration.     

The optical stretcher: a novel laser tool to micromanipulate cells.

When a dielectric object is placed between two opposed, nonfocused laser beams, the total force acting on the object is zero but the surface forces are additive, thus leading to a stretching of the object along the axis of the beams. Using this principle, we have constructed a device, called an optical stretcher, that can be used to measure the viscoelastic properties of dielectric materials, including biologic materials such as cells, with the sensitivity necessary to distinguish even between different individual cytoskeletal phenotypes. We have successfully used the optical stretcher to deform human erythrocytes and mouse fibroblasts. In the optical stretcher, no focusing is required, thus radiation damage is minimized and the surface forces are not limited by the light power. The magnitude of the deforming forces in the optical stretcher thus bridges the gap between optical tweezers and atomic force microscopy for the study of biologic materials.