Capillary Tube Catalase Test

A capillary tube procedure for detection of catalase activities of isolated colonies of pure and mixed cultures on nutrient and blood agar plates is proposed.     

Capillary Tube Immunological Assay for Staphylococcal Enterotoxins

A simple assay is reported in which 1 mug of staphylococcal enterotoxins A, B, and D per ml was detected in less than 1 hr. Interfacial reaction of antisera and enterotoxin solutions in a 1-ml internal diameter capillary tube allowed rapid detection of sera type.     

Catalase Test as an Aid to the Identification of Enterobacteriaceae

Although the catalase test has been used for many years for rapid differentiation of the genera of gram-positive organisms, little has been said about its use in the family Enterobacteriaceae. It was further noted that a wide variety of methods exist for the execution of the catalase test, that there is no universally accepted strength specified for the hydrogen peroxide, and that no gradations for the vigor and speed of the reaction have been mentioned. Under the conditions of the clinical laboratory, we have developed a simple, rapid, and accurate method for the catalase test that has been of great value as an aid in the identification of the Enterobacteriaceae. With 3% H(2)O(2), it was observed that Serratia, Proteus, and Providencia were vigorous catalase reactors. Only Salmonella and rare Escherichia, Enterobacter, and Klebsiella isolates were moderate catalase reactors. Escherichia and Shigella strains were mostly nonreactive, with less than one-third weekly (+) reactive, whereas most Enterobacter strains tended to be weakly reactive. Klebsiella strains were divided equally between nonreactive and weakly reactive. In practice, this test was also of great value in discerning nonpigmented Serratia cultured from the hospital environment and in detecting mixed flora containing nonspreading Proteus.     

Rapid Detection of Clostridium botulinum Toxin by Capillary Tube Diffusion

A micro capillary agar-gel diffusion system for the detection of botulinal toxin in foods and cultures was developed and evaluated. Toxins types A, B, and E, produced in culture broth with and without added trypsin, and type E toxin, produced in inoculated canned clams, were tested with this system and with the mouse bioassay procedure. With nontrypsinized toxin, the capillary diffusion system detected as little as 100 minimal lethal doses (MLD) per ml but was effective only at higher levels, 10(6) to 1.5 x 10(7) MLD/ml, when used with trypsinized toxin. The inability to detect lower levels of trypsinized toxin was due to thioglycolate present in the medium used to produce toxin. Evidently, trypsinization of toxin produces polypeptides still held together by disulfide bonds. Cleavage of these bonds by reduction with thioglycolate reduces the sensitivity of the capillary method. Trypsinized toxin produced in broth without thioglycolate was detected as readily as nontrypsinized toxin. Toxin was detected in canned clams containing as low as 100 MLD/ml. No cross-reactions were observed with type E toxin and types A and B antitoxins. Extensive studies using the capillary method for detecting types A and B toxins were not performed; however, a suspected sample of commercially canned mushrooms gave a positive type B reaction but not a type A reaction. This typing was confirmed later by the mouse bioassay. Toxin was present at a level of 100 MLD/ml. The procedure developed may prove useful as a rapid screening method for the detection of botulinal toxin in foods, with final identification made by using the mouse bioassay.     

Rapid Capillary Tube Method for Detecting Penicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus

A simple, rapid capillary tube test to discriminate between penicillin-resistant and -sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is presented. This test detects penicillinase in noninduced primary isolates from blood-agar plates.     

A Novel Improved Gram Staining Method Based on the Capillary Tube

In this work, an exploratory study was conducted to examine Gram staining based on the capillary tube. Each Gram staining step for all bacterial strains tested was completed in capillary tubes. The results showed that different Gram staining morphologies were clearly visible in the capillary tubes. The results presented here demonstrated that the improved method could effectively distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and only small volumes of reagents were required in this method. Collectively, this efficient method could rapidly and accurately identify the types of bacteria. Therefore, our findings could be used as a useful reference study for other staining methods.Key words: Gram staining, capillary tube, bacteria, and glass slide

Since Hans Christian Joachim Gram reported a staining method in 1884 (Gram 1884), such a technique has experienced more than a century of development and has become frequently used in bacteriology. From 1940 to 1960, Gram staining’s clinical application reaches its peak (Kass 1987). In recent years, several automated instruments for Gram staining have also been applied for microbiological analysis (Baron et al. 2010; Li et al. 2020). With the development of modern science and technology, some new technologies are expected to replace Gram staining. For example, Sizemore et al. (1990) have developed an alternative Gram staining technique using a fluorescent lectin. Later on, several fluorescent Gram staining methods have been established, and some Gram staining techniques suitable for live bacterial suspension have been described (Mason et al. 1998; Fife et al. 2000; Forster et al. 2002; Kwon et al. 2019). Sharma et al. (2020) have found that acridine orange fluorescent staining is more sensitive than the Gram staining. Besides, Berezin et al. (2017) have established a method for detecting Gram-negative bacteria based on enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Lemozerskii et al. (2020) have also reported a method of bacterial discrimination using an acoustic resonator. However, Gram staining is still an vital detection method in practical application for many microbiologists and clinicians due to its rapidity and simplicity (Thompson et al. 2017; Jahangiri et al. 2018; Li et al. 2018a).Over the years, Gram staining has been modified for many times, such as the Brown-Hopps method, Brown-Brenn method, and Gram-Twort method (Brown and Brenn 1931; Brown and Hopps 1973; Peck and Badrick 2017), and these approaches as mentioned earlier are widely used in anatomical pathology laboratories. Through the comparison of various improved methods, it is found that Gram’s original four-step method is still used, and some researchers have adopted the three-step method, while its basic principle has not been changed. As reported by Huang and Cui (1996), the three-step Gram staining method combines the two steps of alcohol decolorization and re-staining procedure in one step. Although Gram staining is one of the most commonly used detection methods in clinical microbiology laboratories, many clinicians are skeptical of its results due to differences in operators, low control, and standardization (Samuel et al. 2016; Thomson 2016). Researchers have made efforts to improve the Gram staining’s accuracy and reliability over the past few years, such as repeated training and standardization of the staining procedure (Thomson 2016; Siguenza et al. 2019). In this study, we developed a standardized Gram staining procedure for bacterial identification using a capillary tube. A modified Gram staining method based on the capillary tube has not yet been reported to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, we proposed a novel improved Gram staining method to improve the accuracy of the detection results and Gram staining efficiency.Eight bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus Licheniformis, Serratia marcescens, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, and Streptococcus thermophilus were provided by the Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, College of Life Science, Luoyang Normal University. L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus were inoculated into skim milk culture medium and maintained at 37°C for 12 h. S. marcescens, B. Licheniformis, E. coli, B. subtilis, V. parahaemolyticus, and S. aureus were inoculated into beef peptone agar slants and maintained at 37°C for 16 h.Capillary tubes with an internal diameter of 0.5 mm and a length of 100 mm were purchased from the Instrument Factory of West China University of Medical Sciences. Gram staining reagent was obtained from the Anhui Chaohuhongci Medical Equipment Co., Ltd.Procedure: (1) One or two drops of sterile water were placed in the center of a clean glass slide. An inoculating loop was hold in a flame until it was red-hot and then allowed to cool approximately 30 seconds. Subsequently, a loop of culture was transferred to the center of the slide. The sample was spread onto the slide using the inoculating loop, and a small volume of bacterial suspension was automatically transferred into the capillary tube.(2) The capillary tube was then heated by passing over a flame for several times until the liquid was completely evaporated. The capillary tube was naturally cooled in the air for several seconds.(3) One end of the capillary tube was hold upward, and the crystal violet solution was automatically transferred to the capillary tube, followed by standing for 1 minute. The remaining crystal violet solution of the capillary tube was then transferred to absorbent paper. The capillary tube was washed in a gentle and indirect stream of tap water for a few seconds, and samples were dried on absorbent paper.(4) One end of the capillary tube was hold upward, and Gram’s iodine solution was automatically transferred to the capillary tube, followed by standing for 1 minute. Subsequently, the capillary tube was washed using the same procedure as described above.(5) One end of the capillary tube was hold upward, and 95% ethanol was automatically transferred to the capillary tube, followed by standing for 30 seconds. Subsequently, the capillary tube was washed using the same procedure as described above.(6) One end of the capillary tube was hold upward, and the Safranin solution was automatically transferred to the capillary tube, followed by standing for 30 seconds to 1 minute. The subsequent procedure was the same as described above. Besides, conventional Gram staining was carried out according to the instructions from the reagent kit. According to the instructions, Gram-negative cells are in pink to red, and Gram-positive cells show a purple or blue color when observed under a microscope.The Gram staining is always the “first-stage criteria” in the preliminary identification of bacterial species according to their cell walls (Li et al. 2018b). Eight different bacterial species were examined to investigate our approach, and the strains were selected according to the Gram staining pattern. Gram-negative bacteria E. coli, V. parahaemolyticus, and S. marcescens were examined. Gram-positive bacteria S. thermophilus, L. bulgaricus, S. aureus, B. licheniformis and B. subtilis were also assessed. Fig. ​Fig.1,1, ​,2,2, and ​and33 illustrate the results of Gram staining of E. coli, V. parahaemolyticus, and S. marcescens, respectively. Fig. ​Fig.4,4, ​,5,5, ​,6,6, ​,7,7, and ​and88 show the Gram staining results of S. thermophilus, L. bulgaricus, S. aureus, B. subtilis, and B. licheniformis, respectively. These results were compared with those obtained using a glass slide for Gram staining. No matter spherical or rod-shaped or not, all bacterial strains could be differentiated into two classifications: Gram-positive and Gram-negative. Comparing these results, we found that the results obtained by the capillary tube method were consistent with the conventional Gram staining approach. It was worth mentioning that in contrast to direct heat fixation of bacteria on glass slides, heat fixation by passing the capillary tube over a flame should be carried out quickly and carefully. If the capillary tube was overheated, it might cause the capillary tube to rupture, and it is easy to blur the field of vision, making it challenging to observe the staining result (Fig. ​(Fig.9).9). Therefore, before the experiments, it is better to conduct a preliminary experiment and achieve the desired results.Open in a separate windowFig. 1.The Gram staining results of E. coli. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 2.The Gram staining results of V. parahaemolyticus. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 3.The Gram staining results of S. marcescens. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 4.The Gram staining results of S. thermophiles. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 5.The Gram staining results of L. bulgaricus. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 6.The Gram staining results of S. aureus. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 7.The Gram staining results of B. subtilis. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 8.The Gram staining results of B. Licheniformis. A – Capillary sample, B – Glass slide sample.Open in a separate windowFig. 9.The microstructure of the overheated capillary tube.Several studies (Chimento et al. 1996; Wada et al. 2012; Li Zhu 2018b) have already pointed out that the property of the bacterial cell wall determines whether the organism will be Gram-positive or Gram-negative, and it plays a role in the choice of antibiotics when infection occurs. Since it has frequently been observed that not all bacteria react in the same manner to such staining procedure (Hale and Bisset 1956), it is necessary to make more tests upon a representative selection of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in future studies.Molecular biology techniques and high-precision measurement systems have been successfully developed, and they can distinguish bacterial types in clinical samples and improve microbial detection (Klaschik et al. 2002; Dolch et al. 2016; Kim et al. 2018). However, it is still urgently needed to develop a rapid and straightforward Gram staining approach to detect bacteria, especially for those who have only primary experimental conditions. Our results indicated a promising method for bacterial differentiation using the capillary tube as a carrier. Successful differentiation required only small volumes of reagents, and the results were achieved within a few minutes by applying an optical microscope. In addition, the method proposed in this paper had reference value to other staining methods requiring expensive reagents.In the present study, the improved Gram staining method was developed based on the pure cultures, and it was only a comparison of the staining results between known Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in a glass slide and capillary tube. In order to improve the accuracy and stability of the results, future study is necessary to detect more bacterial species. In addition, the modified method was not applicable for direct Gram staining of clinical samples. In the future, it may have a positive effect by developing a special method for processing clinical samples.The experimental results demonstrated that an improved Gram staining method was suitable for differentiating the strains tested in our laboratory. The method could rapidly discriminate Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Besides, the method only required small volumes of reagents. A much more comfortable and reproducible Gram staining approach can be developed for microbiology research based on our studies.     

Spiral Motion of Paramecium caudatum in a Small Capillary Glass Tube

SYNOPSIS. The behavior of Paramecium caudatum in small capillary glass tubes was investigated under various ionic conditions and at the various tube diameters. Along the inner walls of the tubes ciliates undergo regular spiral motion, which is completely different from natural spirallings or random walk-like movements observed usually in large vessels. The curvature calculated from the tracks of spiral motions was independent of the inner diameters of capillary tubes, but depend specifically on ionic conditions.
A plausible law governing such regular spiral motions of Paramecium caudatum is proposed. A definite part of the anterior end of a ciliate seems to contact the curved surface of the inner wall of a capillary tube during the motion so that the organism receives a constant tactile stimulus, and the direction of motive force keeps a certain angle against the surface.     

Capillary Tube Assay for Staphylococcal Enterotoxins A, B, and C

A miniaturized single-gel diffusion procedure for detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin is proposed. The technique effects substantial savings of reagents and is easy to perform.     

VE-Cadherin Mediates Endothelial Cell Capillary Tube Formation in Fibrin and Collagen Gels

Various cell adhesion molecules mediate the diverse functions of the vascular endothelium, such as cell adhesion, neutrophil migration, and angiogenesis. In order to identify cell adhesion molecules important for angiogenesis, we used anin vitromodel (Chalupowicz, Chowdhury, Bach, Barsigian, and Martinez,J. Cell Biol.130, 207–215, 1995) in which human umbilical vein endothelial cell monolayers are induced to form capillary-like tubes when a second gel, composed of either fibrin or collagen, is formed overlying the apical surface. In the present investigation, we observed that a monoclonal antibody directed against the first extracellular domain of human vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin, cadherin 5) inhibited the formation of capillary tubes formed between either fibrin or collagen gels. Moreover, when added to preformed capillary tubes, this antibody disrupted the capillary network. In contrast, monoclonal antibodies directed against the extracellular domain of N-cadherin, the α_vβ₃integrin, and PECAM-1 failed to inhibit capillary tube formation. During capillary tube formation, Western blot and RT-PCR analysis revealed no marked change in VE-cadherin expression. Immunocytochemical studies demonstrated that VE-cadherin was concentrated at intercellular junctions in multicellular capillary tubes. Thus, VE-cadherin plays a specific role in fibrin-induced or collagen-induced capillary tube formation and is localized at areas of intercellular contact where it functions to maintain the tubular architecture. Moreover, its function at tubular intercellular junctions is distinct from that at intercellular junctions present in confluent monolayers, since only the former was inhibited by monoclonal antibodies.     

Quantitative Aspects of the M Protein Capillary Precipitin Test

A capillary procedure for quantitatively determining M protein is described. Capillaries were filled with measured amounts of serum and streptococcal extract. The capillaries were incubated, and then centrifuged to pack the precipitates. The relative sizes of the precipates were compared by a determination of the weights of their paper images (obtained by reflection from a microscope). Meaningful dilution curves were determined by this method. Variations of pH from 6 to 8 had little effect on the M protein precipitin test, and the test was not seriously affected by variations of the NaCl concentration from 0.85 to 4.67%. The addition of divalent ions (Ca(++) and Mg(++)) did not influence the results. This test can be used to make quantitative comparisons of M protein preparations and to titrate type-specific antisera.     

魔芋试管苗批量生产过程中外植体消毒灭菌技术研究

采用熏气法,可较为彻底地杀死魔芋球茎或根状茎的内生菌,再配合酒精、HgCl2等进行表面灭菌,可使初次接种污染率控制在10%以下,继代培养污染率控制在5%以下,从而建立魔芋试管苗的无菌繁殖体系,为试管苗的批量化生产提供了前提和技术保障。     

Chalone Inhibition of Granulocyte Colony Growth In Agar: Kinetic Quantitation By Capillary Tube Scanning

Mouse bone marrow cells were seeded into capillary tubes containing agar with colony stimulating factor. the development of myelomonocytic clusters and colonies was followed by daily tube scanning using their light scattering properties. Three kinetic scanning parameters were determined and the significance of different threshold settings was evaluated; viz. the number of signals, the mean signal height and the signal integrals. the inhibitory effect of two extracts with known granulocyte chalone activity which had been prepared from human peripheral leukocytes and rat bone marrow cells, was followed with the scanning method. A continuous reduction of clusters and colony formation and their growth throughout the incubation period was observed which suggested a sustained retardation of proliferation of both the stem cells committed for myelomono-poiesis and their progeny.     

A Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/Phospholipase Cgamma1 Pathway Regulates Fibroblast Growth Factor-Induced Capillary Tube Formation

Background

The fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are key regulators of embryonic development, tissue homeostasis and tumour angiogenesis. Binding of FGFs to their receptor(s) results in activation of several intracellular signalling cascades including phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and phospholipase C (PLC)γ1. Here we investigated the basic FGF (FGF-2)-mediated activation of these enzymes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and defined their role in FGF-2-dependent cellular functions.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We show that FGF-2 activates PLCγ1 in HUVECs measured by analysis of total inositol phosphates production upon metabolic labelling of cells and intracellular calcium increase. We further demonstrate that FGF-2 activates PI3K, assessed by analysing accumulation of its lipid product phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-P₃ using TLC and confocal microscopy analysis. PI3K activity is required for FGF-2-induced PLCγ1 activation and the PI3K/PLCγ1 pathway is involved in FGF-2-dependent cell migration, determined using Transwell assay, and in FGF-2-induced capillary tube formation (tubulogenesis assays in vitro). Finally we show that PI3K-dependent PLCγ1 activation regulates FGF-2-mediated phosphorylation of Akt at its residue Ser473, determined by Western blotting analysis. This occurs through protein kinase C (PKC)α activation since dowregulation of PKCα expression using specific siRNA or blockade of its activity using chemical inhibition affects the FGF-2-dependent Ser473 Akt phosphorylation. Furthermore inhibition of PKCα blocks FGF-2-dependent cell migration.

Conclusion/Significance

These data elucidate the role of PLCγ1 in FGF-2 signalling in HUVECs demonstrating its key role in FGF-2-dependent tubulogenesis. Furthermore these data unveil a novel role for PLCγ1 as a mediator of PI3K-dependent Akt activation and as a novel key regulator of different Akt-dependent processes.     

Interpretation of the Tube Coagulase Test for Identification of Staphylococcus aureus

The tube coagulase test is a valid means of identifying Staphylococcus auerus, provided that only a firm clot that does not move when the tube is tipped is considered a positive reaction. The widely promulgated interpretation that all degrees of clotting in coagulase plasma are a positive identification of S. auerus was disproved by the use of other tests such as anaerobic glucose fermentation, thermonuclease production, and lysostaphin sensitivity. It was found that the source of supply of the coagulase plasma is a factor in the occurrence of false-positive coagulase test results. The use of a mixture of pig and rabbit plasma in the tube coagulase test is also discussed.     

Diversifications in the Tube Dilution Test for Antibiotic Sensitivity of Microorganisms

The tube dilution method of performing antibiotic sensitivity tests is commonly employed as an accurate method for defining the minimal inhibitory concentration in relation to pathogenic organisms. It is also used as a reference for comparing minimal inhibitory concentrations with the size of the zone of inhibition in the agar diffusion test. Although surveys have shown that there is no standardized method and technique of performing the tube dilution test, it is generally assumed that all of the diversified methods will yield the same results and interpretations. With the assistance of five experts, seven different tube dilution methods were compared; 16 antibiotics, and three organisms for each antibiotic, were used. The conclusions drawn are that, although the accuracy of a single method within its own confines is acknowledged, the minimal inhibitory concentrations and interpretations cannot be interpolated from one laboratory to another where a different technique is employed. The results are frequently discrepant. It is suggested that a uniform method be developed and promulgated for general use.