Variation in fungal spore concentrations of selected taxa associated

The aim of the study was to determine seasonal variation in concentrations of selected fungal spore types due to meteorological parameters. The presence of spores of thirteen taxa: Cladosporium, Torula, Alternaria, Botrytis, Epicoccum, Stemphylium, Ganoderma, Erysiphales, Entomophthora, Drechslera type, Didymella, Polythrincium and Pithomyces was recorded in Cracow using a Burkard trap. The majority of selected taxa belong to the anamorphic fungi group, the others to Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Zygomycetes. Fungal spores were present in the air in large numbers throughout the summer with the highest levels being reached in June, July and August although their highest concentrations differed with time. For most of the studied spore types: Botrytis, Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Torula, Drechslera type, Polythrincium, Stemphylium and Pithomyces the peak period was recorded in August. Didymella and Entomophthora spores reached their highest concentrations in July while concentrations of Erysiphales and Cladosporium spores were highest in June. Multiple regression analysis was performed for two seasonal periods: pre-peak and post-peak. In the pre-peak period concentrations of 10 spore types: Cladosporium, Botrytis, Epicoccum, Stemphylium, Drechslera type, Pithomyces, Didymella, Erysiphales, Ganoderma and Entomophthora were strongest influenced by minimum temperature while Alternaria, Polythrincium and Torula by maximum temperature (significance level of α=0.05). During the post-peak period the most important factor affecting variation in concentrations of Botrytis, Polythrincium, Didymella, Erysiphales, Ganoderma and Entomophthora spores was the minimum temperature. For Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum and Torula the maximum temperature appeared to be the most influential, whereas for Drechslera type, Stemphylium and Pithomyces it was sunshine. All correlations between spore concentration, minimum and maximum temperature and sunshine were significant (significance level of α=0.05), and positive although the percentage of explained variation (R²) was low.     

Intradiurnal periodicity of fungal spore concentrations (Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Didymella, Ganoderma) in Cracow, Poland

Aerobiological monitoring enables the definition of seasonal fungal spore concentrations and also intradiurnal time when the highest concentrations of spores could cause or increase allergy symptoms. These data are useful to estimate symptoms of disease, duration of infection and how advanced the illness is in people suffering from fungal allergens. The aim of the study was to compare the concentrations of fungal spores (Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Didymella, Ganoderma) during dry and rainy periods and to analyse their intradiurnal changes. Average daily spore concentrations in dry and rainy periods were compared, using z test, separately for each taxon, season and for a combined 3-year period. Intradiurnal periodicity of fungal spore concentrations was analysed on the basis of three complementary diagrams. These spore concentrations were presented using three curves for all, dry and rainy days in 1997–1999 (April–November). The spore percentage in particular hours was normalized in relation to the daily spore sum accepted as 100%. Two further diagrams enabled the more precise analysis of the highest concentrations in dry days. Daily Botrytis and Cladosporium spore concentrations did not show significant differences between dry and rainy periods. In the case of Didymella and Ganoderma spore concentrations, there were no significant differences between both weather types in the single years, although there was a significant difference when a 3-year period was considered. The differences between daily concentrations of Alternaria spores in dry and rainy periods occurred in 1997 and in a 3-year period. Intradiurnal periodicity of spore concentrations was different for ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ fungal spores. Dry spores are released from the spore-producing parts of the fungus under conditions of decreasing humidity and increasing airflow. Examples of dry spores are those from Alternaria, Cladosporium and Botrytis. Wet spores, such as those from many Ascomycetes (Didymella) and Basidiomycetes (Ganoderma), are released into the atmosphere by processes related to humidity conditions or rain. The highest concentrations of ‘dry’ spores were observed early in the afternoon, while highest values of ‘wet’ spore concentrations occurred in the predawn hours. Statistically non-significant differences between daily spore concentrations in dry and rainy periods of single seasons were found except for Alternaria. Statistically significant differences could occur when the studied period was longer than one season (Alternaria, Didymella, Ganoderma). The highest concentrations of Alternaria, Botrytis and Cladosporium spores were recorded at noon and early in the afternoon. Concentrations of Didymella and Ganoderma spores were highest in the predawn hours.     

Selected airborne allergenic fungal spores and meteorological factors in Szczecin,Poland, 2004–2006

Airborne fungal spore concentrations in Szczecin, Poland, were studied between 2004 and 2006 with the objective of determining a seasonal variation in the concentrations of selected fungal spore types in relation to meteorological parameters. The presence of spores of five taxa, namely, Cladosporium, Ganoderma, Alternaria, Leptosphaeria and Didymella, was recorded using a volumetric method (Hirst type). Fungal spores were present in the air in large numbers during the summer, with the highest concentrations recorded mainly in June, July and August. The peak concentrations of two of the studied spore types, Ganoderma and Alternaria, occurred in August, while the concentrations of Cladosporium, Leptosphaeria and Didymella spores were the highest in July. Multiple regression analysis was performed for three fungal seasons—2004, 2005 and 2006. Spore concentration was found to be positively correlated with the minimum temperature. For some spore types, there was also a significant correlation between concentrations, relative humidity and rain.     

The effects of meteorological factors on airborne fungal spore concentration in two areas differing in urbanisation level

Although fungal spores are an ever-present component of the atmosphere throughout the year, their concentration oscillates widely. This work aims to establish correlations between fungal spore concentrations in Porto and Amares and meteorological data. The seasonal distribution of fungal spores was studied continuously (2005–2007) using volumetric spore traps. To determine the effect of meteorological factors (temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) on spore concentration, the Spearman rank correlation test was used. In both locations, the most abundant fungal spores were Cladosporium, Agaricus, Agrocybe, Alternaria and Aspergillus/Penicillium, the highest concentrations being found during summer and autumn. In the present study, with the exception of Coprinus and Pleospora, spore concentrations were higher in the rural area than in the urban location. Among the selected spore types, spring-autumn spores (Coprinus, Didymella, Leptosphaeria and Pleospora) exhibited negative correlations with temperature and positive correlations both with relative humidity and rainfall level. On the contrary, late spring-early summer (Smuts) and summer spores (Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Ganoderma, Stemphylium and Ustilago) exhibited positive correlations with temperature and negative correlations both with relative humidity and rainfall level. Rust, a frequent spore type during summer, had a positive correlation with temperature. Aspergillus/Penicillium, showed no correlation with the meteorological factors analysed. This knowledge can be useful for agriculture, allowing more efficient and reliable application of pesticides, and for human health, by improving the diagnosis and treatment of respiratory allergic disease.     

Hourly predictive artificial neural network and multivariate regression tree models of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alternaria</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cladosporium</Emphasis> spore concentrations in Szczecin (Poland)

A study was made of the link between time of day, weather variables and the hourly content of certain fungal spores in the atmosphere of the city of Szczecin, Poland, in 2004–2007. Sampling was carried out with a Lanzoni 7-day-recording spore trap. The spores analysed belonged to the taxa Alternaria and Cladosporium. These spores were selected both for their allergenic capacity and for their high level presence in the atmosphere, particularly during summer. Spearman correlation coefficients between spore concentrations, meteorological parameters and time of day showed different indices depending on the taxon being analysed. Relative humidity (RH), air temperature, air pressure and clouds most strongly and significantly influenced the concentration of Alternaria spores. Cladosporium spores correlated less strongly and significantly than Alternaria. Multivariate regression tree analysis revealed that, at air pressures lower than 1,011 hPa the concentration of Alternaria spores was low. Under higher air pressure spore concentrations were higher, particularly when RH was lower than 36.5%. In the case of Cladosporium, under higher air pressure (>1,008 hPa), the spores analysed were more abundant, particularly after 0330 hours. In artificial neural networks, RH, air pressure and air temperature were the most important variables in the model for Alternaria spore concentration. For Cladosporium, clouds, time of day, air pressure, wind speed and dew point temperature were highly significant factors influencing spore concentration. The maximum abundance of Cladosporium spores in air fell between 1200 and 1700 hours.     

Airborne fungal spores in a sawmill environment in Palakkad District, Kerala, India

Concentration of airborne fungal spores inindoor and outdoor environments of a sawmill in Palakkad district of Kerala, India was studied with Burkard Personal Slide Sampler from January to December 1997. Total spore concentration in the indoor and outdoor showed a 3:2 ratio. Higher spore count was observed in indoor in January and in outdoor in October. Thirty three fungal spore types were identified from the indoor and twenty six from the outdoor. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, Nigrospora, Ganoderma, `other basidiospores' and ascospores were the dominant components of the airspora. Aspergillus/Penicillium, the most dominant spore type in the indoor contributed 51.19% and Cladosporium, the most dominant spore type in the outdoor contributed 44.75% of the total spores. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores in the sawmill environment.     

Fungal spores prevalent in the aerosol of the city of Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, over a 2-year period (2001–2002)

This study was carried out over a 2-year period (2001 and 2002) with the aim of identifying the fungal population in the aerosol of the Southern city of Caxias do Sul, RS, Brazil. Sampling was performed using Hirstȁ9s non-viable volumetric method. Our results show the presence of a large number of fungal spore types, a total of 41. Three groups were predominant: Deuteromycotina, Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina. In 2001, Deuteromycotina taxa represented 44.61% of the total annual spore counts, with the largest concentration occurring in the fall (58,637 spores); in 2002, it represented 40.03% of the total annual spore counts, and the largest concentration was obtained in the summer (68,317 spores). Ascomycotina was present at the same level (24.5%) in both years of sampling, and the highest concentrations were found out in the summer (2001: 42,183 spores; 2002: 29,461 spores). Basidiomycotina represented 22.37% of the total annual spore counts in 2001, and 20.41% in 2002, with the largest concentrations found in the summer (2001: 35,988 spores; 2002: 30,212 spores). The most frequent fungi found during the study period were Cladosporium, Coprinus, Leptosphaeria, Aspergillus/Penicillium and Ganoderma. Permanent aerobiological monitoring would be necessary to detect associated environmental variations.     

First fungal spore calendar of the middle-west of the Iberian Peninsula

The aim of this paper was to make a first approximation of the fungal spore airborne content in Valladolid along the year, constructing the first spore calendar for the middle-west of Spain. So that, we monitored the city during 2005 and 2006, being Cladosporium the most abundant type, present all over the year (together with Pleospora). The greatest atmospheric spore diversity was observed in April in contrast with February. The intra-diurnal pattern for Alternaria, Cladosporium and Dreschlera was very similar with an hourly concentration percentage decreasing along two periods, whereas Coprinus, Ganoderma and Periconia showed a clearly nocturnal pattern. The meteorological parameter that most influenced airborne spore concentrations was temperature, significantly and positively in the case of dry-air spores but negatively for wet-air spores.     

The effect of meteorological factors on the daily variation of airborne fungal spores in Granada (southern Spain)

A study was made of the link between climatic factors and the daily content of certain fungal spores in the atmosphere of the city of Granada in 1994. Sampling was carried out with a Burkard 7-day-recording spore trap. The spores analysed corresponded to the taxa Alternaria, Ustilago and Cladosporium, with two morphologically different spore types in the latter genus, cladosporioides and herbarum. These spores were selected both for their allergenic capacity and for the high level of their presence in the atmosphere, particularly during the spring and autumn. The spores of Cladosporium were the most abundant (93.82% of the total spores identified). The Spearman correlation coefficients between the spore concentrations studied and the meteorological parameters show different indices depending on the taxon being analysed. Alternaria and Cladosporium are significantly correlated with temperature and hours of sunlight, while Ustilago shows positive correlation indices with relative humidity and negative indices with wind speed. Received: 16 April 1998 / Revised: 27 September 1999 / Accepted: 27 October 1999     

Study of airborne fungal spores in Madrid, Spain

The concentration of fungal spores in the atmosphere of Madrid was recorded and analyzed for the year 2003. Airborne spores were sampled continuously with a Hirst-type spore trap located on the roof of a building of the School of Pharmacy, at about 8 m above ground level. Correlation between the mean daily spore concentrations and meteorological variables were explored by means of Spearman’s correlation analyses. Seventy spore types were identified, of which the most numerous were Cladosporium, Aspergillaceae (conidia), Coprinus, Agaricales (basidiospores), Ustilago (teliospores) and Pleospora (ascospores). These six types of spores represented more than 70% of the total. Cladosporium represented 41% of the total fungal spores, while Ustilago spores, the concentrations of which in May and June exceeded 47% of the monthly total spore count, constituted the second most important group. Spores reached their highest concentrations in the spring months, and in the autumn, mainly in October. A␣positive significant correlation was found between airborne spore counts and temperature and relative humidity. The results provide a picture of the spectrum of airborne fungal spores present in the atmosphere of Madrid and of the `peak' periods of their presence. Future studies will provide more detailed information on the seasonal dynamics of the spores most frequently found in the air as well as on the extent to which atmospheric conditions influence their release, dispersion and sedimentation processes.     

A fungal spore calendar for the atmosphere of Melbourne, Australia, for the year 1993

A calendar of fungal spore seasons for Melbourne during 1993was established using a 7-day volumetric Burkard trap. Twenty-ninegenera and five spore groups were identified. The dominant spore typesdetected were Cladosporium (41.7%),Leptosphaeria (14.9%), Coprinus (14.6%),`Ascospore 1' (5.5%), Ganoderma (2.1%) andAlternaria (1.4%). Seasonally, spore levels ofCladosporium and Alternaria peaked in spring andsummer, Leptosphaeria and Ganoderma peaked towardsummer and autumn, `Ascospore 1' peaked in winter, whilst spore levelsof the basidiomycete Coprinus fluctuated year round. Inconclusion, a range of allergenic fungal spores were present in the airof Melbourne throughout the year.     

Airborne fungi associated with ornamental plant propagation in greenhouses

The objective was to determine potential exposure to airborne fungi in greenhouses and to characterize the temporal patterns of airborne fungi in relation to environmental conditions. We analyzed air samples collected in two greenhouses. Results showed that the top 5 fungi in greenhouse 1 were Trichoderma, hyphal fragments, Aspergillus/Penicillium-like, Cladosporium, and Botrytis in a descending order. Those in greenhouse 2 were Aspergillus/Penicillium-like, Cladosporium, Botrytis, yeast-like, and hyphal fragments. Maximum concentrations of Trichoderma and total spores in greenhouse 1 were 36,426 and 49,729 spores/m³, respectively. Maximum concentrations of Aspergillus/Penicillium and total spores in greenhouse 2 were 46,961 and 71,037 spores/m³, respectively. Airborne fungal populations fluctuated dramatically within 2 h during work hours, tenfold for Aspergillus/Penicillium, 66-fold for Trichoderma, and sevenfold for total spores. QPCR detected Trichoderma harzianum ranging from 7 to 3,500 conidia E/m³. Aspergillus/Penicillium and Botrytis showed diurnal patterns, but not Trichoderma. Aspergillus/Penicillium and Cladosporium were positively correlated with temperature, relative humidity, dew point, heat index, and light and negatively with air movement and air pressure. Botrytis and Trichoderma were not correlated with the environmental factors. Greenhouse workers were potentially exposed up to 71,037 spores/m³ of airborne fungi.     

The variation in spore concentrations of selected fungal taxa associated with weather conditions in Szczecin,Poland, 2004–2006

The investigation of airborne fungal spore concentrations was carried out in Szczecin, Poland between 2004 and 2006. The objective of the studies was to determine a seasonal variation in concentrations of selected fungal spore types due to meteorological parameters. The presence of spores of ten taxa: Cladosporium, Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Didymella, Torula, Dreschlera‐type, Polythrincium, Stemphylium and Pithomyces was recorded in Szczecin using a volumetric method (Hirst type). Fungal spores were present in the air in large numbers in summer. The highest concentrations were noted in June, July and August. The peak period was recorded in August for most of the studied spore types: Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Dreschlera‐type, Polythrincium and Stemphylium. Cladosporium and Didymella spores reached their highest concentrations in July while concentrations of Torula were highest in May and Pithomyces in September. Multiple regression analysis was performed for three fungal seasons: 2004, 2005, and 2006. Spore concentrations were positively correlated with minimum temperature for seven spore types in 2004, for five spore types in 2005, and for eight spore types in 2006 (significance level of α = 0.05). Some spore types are also significantly correlation among their concentrations, pressure, relative humidity and rain. Minimum temperature appeared to be the most influential factor for most spore types.     

The role of meteorological factors in determining the annual variation ofAlternaria andCladosporium spores in the atmosphere of Palencia, 1990–1992

A study was made of the daily content ofAlternaria andCladosporium spores in the atmosphere in Palencia city (Spain) for three consecutive years 1990–1992.Alternaria andCladosporium represented 55% of the total identified spores, presenting an annual distributional pattern of which the maximum values were reached in summer. Multiple regression analyses showed a positive correlation between minimum temperature andCladosporium spore concentrations, while forAlternaria there was a positive correlation with maximum temperature and a negative correlation with precipitation. Duncan's multiple range test among means ofAlternaria data indicated that winds coming from a northeasterly direction were associated with significantly higher concentrations the spores.     

Monitoring of anamorphic fungal spores in Madeira region (Portugal), 2003–2008

Seven years of aeromycological study was performed in the city of Funchal with the purpose to determine the anamorphic spore content of this region and its relationship to meteorological factors. The sampling was carried out with a Hirst-type volumetric spore trap following well-established guidelines. A total of 17,586 anamorphic fungal spores were recorded during the studied period, attaining an annual average concentration of 2931 spores m^?3. Anamorphic fungal spores were observed throughout the year, although the major peaks were registered during spring (April–June) and autumn period (September–November). The lowest spore levels were recorded between December and February months. Over 14 taxa of anamorphic fungal spores were observed with Cladosporium being the most prevalent fungal type accounting for 78 % of the total conidiospores. The next in importance was Alternaria (5.4 %), Fusarium (4.7 %), Torula (3.9 %) and Botrytis (1.9 %). Temperature was the meteorological parameter that favoured the most release and dispersal of the conidiospores, whereas rainfall revealed a negative effect. Despite the low concentration levels found in our region, the majority of the fungal types identified are described as potential aeroallergens. This study provides the seasonal variation of the conidiospores and the periods when the highest counts may be expected, representing a preventive tool in the allergic sensitization of the population.     

An assessment of the air quality in indoor and outdoor air with reference to fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments in Kerala, India

Qualitative and quantitative analyses of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments (market, saw mill, poultry and cow sheds) in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala, India, were carried out for 2 years using Burkard Personal Slide Sampler and Andersen Two-Stage Sampler. Total spore concentration in these sites was always higher in indoor environments than in outdoor environments. Difference in concentration was not statistically significant in any of these work places except in saw mill (t test, p < 0.05). The highest spore concentration was recorded here followed by market, poultry and cow sheds. A total of 32 fungal spore types from indoor environments and 33 spore types from outdoor environments were recorded. Of them, 16 spore types were common to all the sites. Ameropsores, Cladosporium, other basidiospores, Ganoderma and Nigrospora were the dominant spore types in both indoor and outdoor environments. A total of 27 species of viable fungi from indoor and 24 species from outdoor environments were identified. Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were the most dominant viable fungi isolated. In contrast, total pollen concentration was always higher in outdoor environments than in indoor environments. Twenty-nine pollen types from indoor and 32 pollen types from outdoor were captured during the sampling. Poaceae, Cocos, Artocarpus, Amaranthus/Chenopodium and Tridax were the common and dominant pollen types observed in all the sites. Peak spore and pollen incidence were recorded during the late rainy and dry seasons (October–February) in both indoor and outdoor environments. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores and pollen grains in all the four work places. Workers/visitors are at potential risk of susceptibility to respiratory/allergic disorders.     

Atmospheric concentrations of selected allergenic fungal spores in relation to some meteorological factors,in Timişoara (Romania)

Present investigation was undertaken to study the dynamics of relationships between atmospheric fungal spores and meteorological factors in western Romania. The airborne spore sampling was carried out by employing volumetric sampling. A total of nine meteorological parameters were selected for this investigation. During 2008–2010, it was found the same pattern of behaviour in the atmosphere for selected spore types (Alternaria, Cladosporium, Pithomyces, Epicoccum and Torula). The spores occurred in the air throughout the whole year, but maximum concentrations were reached in summer. Cladosporium and Alternaria peak levels were observed in June. Epicoccum peak value was found in September. The relationships between airborne spore concentrations and environmental factors were assessed using the analysis of Spearman’s rank correlations and multiple linear regressions. Spearman’s rank correlation analysis revealed that maximum, minimum and mean temperature, and number of sunshine hours were strongly (p < 0.01) and directly proportional to the concentration of all analysed fungal spores. Negative and significant correlations were with daily mean relative humidity. The variance explained percentage by regression analyses varied between 30.6 and 39.6 % for Alternaria and Cladosporium airborne spores. Statistical methods used in this study are complementary and confirmed stable dependence of Alternaria and Cladosporium spore concentrations on meteorological factors. The climate change parameters either increased temperatures, changed precipitation regimes or a combination of both affected allergenic fungal spore concentrations in western Romania. This study demonstrates the need for investigations throughout the year, from month to month, regarding the correct interpretation of airborne spore relationships with meteorological parameters.     

Main airborne Ascomycota spores: characterization by culture, spore morphology, ribosomal DNA sequences and enzymatic analysis

The aim of this work was to identify the main allergy-related Ascomycetes fungal spores present in the atmosphere of Porto, using different and complementary techniques. The atmospheric sampling, performed in the atmosphere of Porto (Portugal) from August 2006 to July 2008, indicated Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Alternaria as the main fungal spore taxa. Alternaria and Cladosporium peaks were registered during summer. Aspergillus and Penicillium highest values were registered from late winter to early spring. Additionally, the Andersen sampler allowed the culture and isolation of the collected viable spores subsequently used for different identification approaches. The internal-transcribed spacer region of the nuclear ribosomal repeat unit sequences of airborne Ascomycetes fungi isolates revealed 11 taxonomically related fungal species. Among the identified taxa, Penicillum and Aspergillus presented the highest diversity, while only one species of Cladosporium and Alternaria, respectively, were identified. All selected fungal spore taxa possessed phosphatase, esterase, leucine arylamidase and β-glucosidase enzymatic activity, while none had lipase, cystine arylamidase, trypsin or β-glucuronidase activity. The association between the spore cell wall morphology, DNA-based techniques and enzymatic activity approaches allowed a more reliable identification procedure of the airborne Ascomycota fungal spores.     

Deuteromycete aerobiology and skin-reactivity patterns - A two year concurrent study in Corpus Christi,Texas, USA

Baseline aerobiologic data of known and potentially allergenic deuteromycetes in Corpus Christi, Texas, USA, are presented concurrent with analyses of patient skin-reactivity (November 1987-October 1988 & November 1988-October 1989). Species representations of deuteromycete spores and their relative abundance were similar for two years. Three distinct groupings were discerned: Cladosporium (representing 80% of total spores) showed weekly averages predominantly in 1000-5000/m³ range; Alternaria (7.8%), Aspergillus/Penicillium (5.3%) and Torula (0.8%) at primarily 500-1000/m³ level; and Epicoccum (1.3%), Fusarium (1.3%), Nigrospora (1.3%), Stemphylium (0.6%), Drechslera (0.5%), Curvularia (0.2%), Pithomyces (0.1%) and other minor genera, mostly in 100-500/m³ range. Spore-bursts were recorded for all deuteromycetes with extreme spore-burst capture most prevalent among sporadic spores (e.g., Curvularia and Torula). Two-thirds of the 602 atopic persons were skintest positive to 1 or more of the 10 deuteromycete extracts. Alternaria, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Epicoccum elicited highest skin-reactivities (31.2% to 32.1%), despite wide disparity in spore concentration. Twenty-seven percent of patients were positive to Nigrospora and Stemphylium