Effect of exercise training on in vivo lipolysis in intra-abdominal adipose tissue in rats

Intra-abdominal obesity is associated with cardiovascular disease and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and physical training has been suggested to alleviate these conditions. We compared epinephrine-stimulated lipolysis in vivo in three intra-abdominal adipose tissues (ATs: retroperitoneal, parametrial, and mesenteric) and in subcutaneous AT, and we also studied the effect of physical training. Moreover, we studied the effect of physical training on epinephrine-stimulated lipolysis in muscle in vivo. Female rats were either swim trained (15 wk, n = 8) or sedentary (n = 7). Under anesthesia, a two-stage intravenous epinephrine infusion (60 min of 80 and 200 ng. kg(-1). min(-1), respectively) was carried out, and local interstitial glycerol concentration was measured by the microdialysis technique. Blood flow was measured by microspheres. Training increased blood flow in all ATs [on average: 73 +/- 12 (trained) vs. 14 +/- 4 (sedentary) ml. 100 g(-1). min(-1), P < 0. 05]; nevertheless, epinephrine-stimulated interstitial glycerol concentrations were increased or unchanged. Interstitial glycerol concentration was higher in intra-abdominal than in subcutaneous AT in both trained and sedentary rats. In skeletal muscle, interstitial glycerol concentration and blood flow did not differ between trained and sedentary rats. In conclusion, in vivo lipolysis is higher both in the basal state and during epinephrine-stimulation in intra-abdominal than in subcutaneous AT, and training may be beneficial in alleviating intra-abdominal obesity by enhancing lipolysis in intra-abdominal fat depots.     

Exercise training induces insulin-sensitizing PAHSAs in adipose tissue of elderly women

Adverse effects of aging can be delayed with life-style interventions. We examined how exercise training (ET) alone or combined with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) affects serum and adipose tissue (AT) lipidome in older women. Fifty-five sedentary older women were included in the physical activity program and given either sunflower (Placebo) or wax esters-rich (Calanus) oil capsules for 4 months. Serum and subcutaneous abdominal AT samples were acquired while maximum rates of oxygen consumption (VO₂ max), insulin sensitivity (hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps) and comprehensive lipidome profiles were determined before and after the study.ET increased VO₂ max in both groups. Lipidomics profiling revealed unusual serum triacylglycerols and phospholipids with ether-bound alkyls in the Calanus group, while ET generally induced shorter-chain triacylglycerols in AT, suggesting increased de novo lipogenesis. The latter was positively associated with whole-body insulin sensitivity. Unexpectedly, insulin-sensitizing lipokines from the family of branched palmitic acid esters of hydroxy stearic acid (PAHSAs) were elevated in both serum and AT after ET, while PAHSAs-containing triacylglycerols were detected in AT.ET stimulated beneficial changes in AT, including PAHSAs synthesis. Although the added value of omega-3 PUFA supplementation was not proven, our discovery can help understand the nature of the metabolic benefits of exercise.     

Effect of exercise training on in vivo insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in intra-abdominal adipose tissue in rats

Intra-abdominal obesity may be crucial in the pathogenesis of the insulin-resistance syndrome, and training may alleviate this condition. We compared insulin-mediated glucose uptake in vivo in three intra-abdominal adipose tissues (ATs; retroperitoneal, parametrial, and mesenteric) and in subcutaneous AT and also studied the effect of training. Rats were either swim trained (15 wk, n = 9) or sedentary (n = 16). While the rats were under anesthesia, a hyperinsulinemic ( approximately 900 pM), euglycemic clamp was carried out and local glucose uptake was measured by both the 2-deoxy-D-[(3)H]glucose and microdialysis techniques. Blood flow was measured by microspheres. Upon insulin stimulation, blood flow generally decreased in AT. Flow was higher in mesenteric tissue than in other ATs, whereas insulin-mediated glucose uptake did not differ between ATs. Training doubled the glucose infusion rate during hyperinsulinemia, in part, reflecting an effect in muscle. During hyperinsulinemia, interstitial glucose concentrations were lower, glucose uptake per 100 g of tissue was higher in AT in trained compared with sedentary rats, and training influenced glucose uptake identically in all ATs. In conclusion, differences between ATs in insulin sensitivity with respect to glucose uptake do not explain that insulin resistance is associated with intra-abdominal rather than subcutaneous obesity. Furthermore, training may be beneficial by enhancing insulin sensitivity in intra-abdominal fat depots.     

Ovariectomy and overeating palatable, energy-dense food increase subcutaneous adipose tissue more than intra-abdominal adipose tissue in rats

Background

Men are at an increased risk of dying from heart failure caused by inflammatory heart diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). We previously showed that macrophages in the spleen are phenotypically distinct in male compared to female mice at 12 h after infection. This innate immune profile mirrors and predicts the cardiac immune response during acute myocarditis.

Methods

In order to study sex differences in the innate immune response, five male and female BALB/c mice were infected intraperitoneally with coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) or phosphate buffered saline and their spleens were harvested 12 h later for microarray analysis. Gene expression was determined using an Affymetrix Mouse Gene 1.0 ST Array. Significant gene changes were verified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction or ELISA.

Results

During the innate immune response to CVB3 infection, infected males had higher splenic expression of genes which are important in regulating the influx of cholesterol into macrophages, such as phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) and the macrophage scavenger receptor compared to the infected females. We also observed a higher expression in infected males compared to infected females of squalene synthase, an enzyme used to generate cholesterol within cells, and Cyp2e1, an enzyme important in metabolizing cholesterol and steroids. Infected males also had decreased levels of the translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO), which binds PLA₂ and is the rate-limiting step for steroidogenesis, as well as decreased expression of the androgen receptor (AR), which indicates receptor activation. Gene differences were not due to increased viral replication, which was unaltered between sexes.

Conclusions

We found that, compared to females, male mice had a greater splenic expression of genes which are important for cholesterol metabolism and activation of the AR at 12 h after infection. Activation of the AR has been linked to increased cardiac hypertrophy, atherosclerosis, myocarditis/DCM and heart failure in male mice and humans.     

High-volume, heavy-resistance strength training and muscle damage in young and older women.

To determine possible age differences in muscle damage response to strength training, ultrastructural muscle damage was assessed in seven 20- to 30-yr-old and six 65- to 75-yr-old previously sedentary women after heavy-resistance strength training (HRST). Subjects performed unilateral knee-extension exercise 3 days/wk for 9 wk. Bilateral muscle biopsies from the vastus lateralis were assessed for muscle damage via electron microscopy. HRST resulted in a 38 and 25% increase in strength in the young and older women, respectively (P < 0.05), but there were no between-group differences. In the young women, 2-4% of muscle fibers exhibited damage before and after training in both the trained and untrained legs (P = not significant). In contrast, muscle damage increased significantly after HRST, from 5 to 17% of fibers damaged (P < 0.01), in the older women in the trained leg compared with only 2 and 5% of fibers damaged in the untrained leg before and after training, respectively. The present results indicate that older women exhibit higher levels of muscle damage after chronic HRST than do young women.     

Endurance training and GH administration in elderly women: effects on abdominal adipose tissue lipolysis

In the present study, the effect of endurance training alone and endurance training combined with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) administration on subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue lipolysis was investigated. Sixteen healthy women [age 75 +/- 2 yr (mean +/- SE)] underwent a 12-wk endurance training program on a cycle ergometer. rhGH was administered in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled design in addition to the training program. Subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue lipolysis was estimated by means of microdialysis combined with measurements of subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue blood flow (ATBF; (133)Xe washout). Whole body fat oxidation was estimated simultaneously by indirect calorimetry. Before and after completion of the training program, measurements were performed both at rest and during 60 min of continuous cycling at a workload corresponding to 60% of pretraining peak oxygen uptake. Endurance training alone did not affect subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue lipolysis either at rest or during exercise, as reflected by identical levels of interstitial adipose tissue glycerol, subcutaneous abdominal ATBF, and plasma nonesterified fatty acids before and after completion of the training program. Similarly, no effect on subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue lipolysis was observed when combining endurance training with rhGH administration. However, in both the placebo and the GH groups, fat oxidation was significantly increased during exercise performed at the same absolute workload after completion of the training program. We conclude that the changed lipid metabolism during exercise observed after endurance training alone or after endurance training combined with rhGH administration is not due to alterations in subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue metabolism in elderly women.     

The initial effects of low-volume strength training on balance in untrained older men and women

Evidence indicates that leg weakness in older adults is associated with decreased control of balance. The gender-specific implications of strength training on control of balance in older men and women remains unknown. This study examined the initial adaptations to 12 weeks of low-volume, single-set-to-failure strength training and its effect on quadriceps strength and control of multidirectional balance in previously untrained older men (n = 11) and women (n = 11) 59-83 years of age. Leg strength increased 23-30% (p < 0.001) across genders; however, the effect on balance varied between genders. No significant changes were noted in the women, whereas 37% (p < 0.014) more sway in the medial-lateral direction was noted in the men, with no change in the anterior-posterior direction. These results demonstrate that this training protocol may not be effective for improving balance and may lead to worsening of balance in older men.     

Effects of strength training on muscle strength characteristics, functional capabilities, and balance in middle-aged and older women

Progressive strength training can lead to substantial increases in maximal strength and mass of trained muscles, even in older women and men, but little information is available about the effects of strength training on functional capabilities and balance. Thus, the effects of 21 weeks of heavy resistance training--including lower loads performed with high movement velocities--twice a week on isometric maximal force (ISOmax) and force-time curve (force produced in 500 milliseconds, F0-500) and dynamic 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength of the leg extensors, 10-m walking time (10WALK) and dynamic balance test (DYN.D) were investigated in 26 middle-aged (MI; 52.8 +/- 2.4 years) and 22 older women (O; 63.8 +/- 3.8 years). 1RM, ISOmax, and F0-500 increased significantly in MI by 28 +/- 10%, 20 +/- 19%, 31 +/- 34%, and in O by 27 +/- 8%, 20 +/- 16%, 18 +/- 45%, respectively. 10WALK (MI and O, p < 0.001) shortened and DYN.D improved (MI and O, p < 0.001). The present strength-training protocol led to large increases in maximal and explosive strength characteristics of leg extensors and in walking speed, as well to an improvement in the present dynamic balance test performance in both age groups. Although training-induced increase in explosive strength is an important factor for aging women, there are other factors that contribute to improvements in dynamic balance capacity. This study indicates that total body heavy resistance training, including explosive dynamic training, may be applied in rehabilitation or preventive exercise protocols in aging women to improve dynamic balance capabilities.     

Regional adipose tissue metabolism in postmenopausal women after treatment with exogenous sex steroids

In order to evaluate the effect of exogenous sex steroids on adipose tissue metabolism, two groups of postmenopausal women were studied. In one of the groups, the effect of 50 micrograms ethinyl estradiol (EE) was investigated given orally alone and in combination with 10 mg norethisterone acetate (NET). This combination is reminiscent of an old high dose oral contraceptive. In the other group, the effect of 3 mg 17 beta-estradiol was evaluated when administered percutaneously alone and in combination with 300 mg micronized progesterone given orally. These substances and doses were chosen to provide a "physiological" hormonal influence. In the femoral region 50 micrograms EE induced an increase in LPL activity. This elevated LPL value was reversed with the addition of 10 mg NET. Moreover, during treatment with 50 micrograms EE, a decrease in norepinephrine stimulated lipolysis was seen in the abdominal region. The percutaneous administration of 17 beta-estradiol with or without micronized progesterone, however, was inert as regards subcutaneous adipose tissue metabolism. Our findings indicate, therefore, that EE in doses used in oral contraception might promote lipid accumulation in the femoral adipose tissue depot.     

Exercise training decreases adipose tissue inflammation in cachectic rats

Bearing in mind that cancer cachexia is associated with chronic systemic inflammation and that endurance training has been adopted as a nonpharmacological anti-inflammatory strategy, we examined the effect of 8 weeks of moderate intensity exercise upon the balance of anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines in 2 different depots of white adipose tissue in cachectic tumour-bearing (Walker-256 carcinosarcoma) rats. Animals were assigned to a sedentary control (SC), sedentary tumour-bearing (ST), sedentary pair-fed (SPF) or exercise control (EC), exercise tumour-bearing (ET), and exercise pair-fed (EPF) group. Trained rats ran on a treadmill (60% VO(2)max) 60?min/day, 5 days/week, for 8 weeks. The retroperitoneal (RPAT) and mesenteric (MEAT) adipose pads were excised and the mRNA (RT-PCR) and protein (ELISA) expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 were evaluated. The number of infiltrating monocytes in the adipose tissue was increased in cachectic rats. TNF-α mRNA in MEAT was increased in the cachectic animals (p<0.05) in relation to SC. RPAT protein expression of all studied cytokines was increased in cachectic animals in relation to SC and SPF (p<0.05). In this pad, IL-10/TNF-α ratio was reduced in the cachectic animals in comparison with SC (p<0.05) indicating inflammation. Exercise training improved IL-10/TNF-α ratio and induced a reduction of the infiltrating monocytes both in MEAT and RPAT (p<0.05), when compared with ST. We conclude that cachexia is associated with inflammation of white adipose tissue and that exercise training prevents this effect in the MEAT, and partially in RPAT.     

Standing strength training of the ankle plantar and dorsiflexors in older women, using concentric and eccentric contractions

Many studies have reported strength gains in older adults following high-intensity resistance training. However, the muscle contraction types examined have been primarily isometric (static) or concentric (CONC; shortening). Less is known about how eccentric (ECC) strength in older adults responds to training or about the efficacy of ECC contractions as training stimuli in these subjects, even though muscle contractions of this type are performed in most training regimens and daily physical activities. In this study, 15 physically active, healthy older women [68 (5) years; mean (SD)] completed an 8-week resistance training program of two sessions per week. Training consisted of three sets of eight repetitions of CONC ankle plantar flexion (PF) and ECC dorsiflexion (DF), at greater than 80% of the initial peak torque, in a standing position only. Subjects were tested in standing and supine positions for: (1) strength over a range of 10° DF to 20° PF for both CONC and ECC; DF and PF (2) passive resistive torque of the plantar flexors at 6°/s; and (3) DF and PF rate of torque development. All strength testing and training was done at 30°/s. Significant increases (P < 0.01) were found for both CONC DF (↑30%) and ECC DF (↑17%) peak torque in the standing position. No significant changes occurred for DF strength as measured with the subjects in the supine position, PF strength in either position, passive resistive torque, or rate of torque development. In summary, strength gains occurred only in the dorsiflexors, which were trained using ECC contractions. Improvements in DF strength were specific to the position of training, which has implications for the transferability of strength gains to functional tasks such as maintaining gait. Accepted: 17 January 1997     

Effects of physical training on proprioception in older women

Older adulthood is accompanied by declines in muscular strength, coordination, function, and increased risk of falling. Resistance training increases muscular strength in this population but its effect on proprioception is unknown. To evaluate the effect of resistance training on proprioception, community dwelling older women completed a three-month exercise study. A resistance training (RT) group (N=19) underwent supervised weight training three times per week while a non-strength trained control (NSTC) group (N=19) performed range-of-motion activities that mimicked the movements of the RT group without the benefit of muscle loading. Subjects were evaluated at baseline, 6, and 12 weeks for strength and proprioception. Muscular strength was assessed by measuring the subject's one repetition maximum performance on four different exercises. Static proprioception was measured by the subject's ability to reproduce a target knee joint angle while dynamic proprioception was measured by the subject's ability to detect passive knee motion. The RT group made significant strength improvements compared to the NSTC group. Proprioception significantly improved in both groups by 6 weeks. Our findings suggest that improvements in proprioception can be obtained via regular activity that is independent of heavy muscle loading.     

Ultrastructural muscle damage in young vs. older men after high-volume, heavy-resistance strength training.

This study assessed ultrastructural muscle damage in young (20-30 yr old) vs. older (65-75 yr old) men after heavy-resistance strength training (HRST). Seven young and eight older subjects completed 9 wk of unilateral leg extension HRST. Five sets of 5-20 repetitions were performed 3 days/wk with variable resistance designed to subject the muscle to near-maximal loads during every repetition. Biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis of both legs, and muscle damage was quantified via electron microscopy. Training resulted in a 27% strength increase in both groups (P < 0.05). In biopsies before training in the trained leg and in all biopsies from untrained leg, 0-3% of muscle fibers exhibited muscle damage in both groups (P = not significant). After HRST, 7 and 6% of fibers in the trained leg exhibited damage in the young and older men, respectively (P < 0.05, no significant group differences). Myofibrillar damage was primarily focal, confined to one to two sarcomeres. Young and older men appear to exhibit similar levels of muscle damage at baseline and after chronic HRST.     

Selective muscle hypertrophy, changes in EMG and force, and serum hormones during strength training in older women.

Effects of strength training (ST) for 21 wk were examined in 10 older women (64 +/- 3 yr). Electromyogram, maximal isometric force, one-repetition maximum strength, and rate of force development of the leg extensors, muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris (QF) and of vastus lateralis (VL), medialis (VM), intermedius (VI) and rectus femoris (RF) throughout the lengths of 3/12--12/15 (Lf) of the femur, muscle fiber proportion and areas of types I, IIa, and IIb of the VL were evaluated. Serum hormone concentrations of testosterone, growth hormone (GH), cortisol, and IGF-I were analyzed for the resting, preexercise, and postexercise conditions. After the 21-wk ST, maximal force increased by 37% (P < 0.001) and 1-RM by 29% (P < 0.001), accompanied by an increase (P < 0.01) in rate of force development. The integrated electromyograms of the vastus muscles increased (P < 0.05). The CSA of the total QF increased (P < 0.05) throughout the length of the femur by 5--9%. The increases were significant (P < 0.05) at 7/15--12/15 Lf for VL and at 3/15--8/15 Lf for VM, at 5/15--9/15 for VI and at 9/15 (P < 0.05) for RF. The fiber areas of type I (P < 0.05), IIa (P < 0.001), and IIb (P < 0.001) increased by 22--36%. No changes occurred during ST in serum basal concentrations of the hormones examined, but the level of testosterone correlated with the changes in the CSA of the QF (r = 0.64, P < 0.05). An acute increase of GH (P < 0.05), remaining elevated up to 30 min (P < 0.05) postloading, was observed only at posttraining. Both neural adaptations and the capacity of skeletal muscle to undergo training-induced hypertrophy even in older women explain the strength gains. The increases in the CSA of the QF occurred throughout its length but differed selectively between the individual muscles. The serum concentrations of hormones remained unaltered, but a low level of testosterone may be a limiting factor in training-induced muscle hypertrophy. The magnitude and time duration of the acute GH response may be important physiological indicators of anabolic adaptations during strength training even in older women.     

Muscle hypertrophy response to resistance training in older women.

We conducted a 12-wk resistance training program in elderly women [mean age 69 +/- 1.0 (SE) yr] to determine whether increases in muscle strength are associated with changes in cross-sectional fiber area of the vastus lateralis muscle. Twenty-seven healthy women were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. The program was satisfactorily completed and adequate biopsy material obtained from 6 controls and 13 exercisers. After initial testing of baseline maximal strength, exercisers began a training regimen consisting of seven exercises that stressed primary muscle groups of the lower extremities. No active intervention was prescribed for the controls. Increases in muscle strength of the exercising subjects were significant compared with baseline values (28-115%) in all muscle groups. No significant strength changes were observed in the controls. Cross-sectional area of type II muscle fibers significantly increased in the exercisers (20.1 +/- 6.8%, P = 0.02) compared with baseline. In contrast, no significant change in type II fiber area was observed in the controls. No significant changes in type I fiber area were found in either group. We conclude that a program of resistance exercise can be safely carried out by elderly women, such a program significantly increases muscle strength, and such gains are due, at least in part, to muscle hypertrophy.     

Influence of rest interval lengths on hypotensive response after strength training sessions performed by older men

The purpose of this study was to compare the postexercise hypotensive response after different rest intervals between sets (1 and 2 minutes) in normotense older men. Seventeen older men (67.6 ± 2.2 years) with at least 1 year of strength training experience participated. After determination of 10 repetition maximum (10RM) loads for exercises, subjects performed 2 different strength training sessions. On the first day, volunteers performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions per exercise at 70% 10RM, with 1 or 2 minutes' rest interval between sets depending on random assignment. On the second day, the procedures were similar but with the other rest interval. There was no difference in systolic and diastolic blood pressure between rest intervals at any time point measure. Before 1- and 2-minute sessions, the systolic blood pressure values were 122.7 ± 6.0 and 123.2 ± 3.7 mm Hg, and diastolic blood pressure values were 80.5 ± 5.6 and 82.0 ± 3.7 mm Hg, respectively. Both 1 and 2 minute sessions still presented reduced values for systolic blood pressure after 60 minutes (102.9 ± 6.9 and 106.7 ± 5.4 mm Hg, respectively), while the diastolic blood pressure presented significant reductions for 50 minutes after a 1 minute session (12.1 to 5.6 mm Hg) and for 60 minutes after the 2 minute session (13.3 to 6.5 mm Hg). Additionally, the systolic and diastolic blood pressure effect size data demonstrated higher magnitudes at all time point measures after the 2-minute rest sessions. These results suggest a poststrength training hypotensive response for both training sessions in normotense older men, with higher magnitudes for the 2-minute rest session. Our findings suggest a potentially positive health benefit of strength training.     

The effects of 12-week progressive strength training on strength,functional capacity,metabolic biomarkers,and serum hormone concentrations in healthy older women: morning versus evening training

ABSTRACT

Previous findings suggest that performing strength training (ST) in the evening may provide greater benefit for young individuals. However, this may not be optimal for the older population. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a 12-week ST program performed in the morning vs. evening on strength, functional capacity, metabolic biomarker and basal hormone concentrations in older women. Thirty-one healthy older women (66 ± 4 years, 162 ± 4 cm, 75 ± 13 kg) completed the study. Participants trained in the morning (M) (07:30, n = 10), in the evening (E) (18:00, n = 10), or acted as a non-training control group (C) (n = 11). Both intervention groups performed whole-body strength training with 3 sets of 10–12 repetitions with 2–3 minutes rest between sets. All groups were measured before and after the 12-week period with; dynamic leg press and seated-row 6-repetition maximum (6-RM) and functional capacity tests (30-second chair stands and arm curl test, Timed Up and Go), as well as whole-body skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (kg) and fat mass (FM-kg, FM%) assessed by bioelectrical impedance (BIA). Basal blood samples (in the intervention groups only) taken before and after the intervention assessed low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), blood glucose (GLU), triglycerides (TG), high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) concentrations and total antioxidant status (TAS) after a 12 h fast. Hormone analysis included prolactin (PRL), progesterone (P) estradiol (ESTR), testosterone (T), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). While C showed no changes in any variable, both M and E significantly improved leg press (+ 46 ± 22% and + 21 ± 12%, respectively; p < 0.001) and seated-row (+ 48 ± 21% and + 42 ± 18%, respectively; p < 0.001) 6-RM, as well as all functional capacity outcomes (p < 0.01) due to training. M were the only group to increase muscle mass (+ 3 ± 2%, p < 0.01). Both M and E group significantly (p < 0.05) decreased GLU (–4 ± 6% and –8 ± 10%, respectively), whereas significantly greater decrease was observed in the E compared to the M group (p < 0.05). Only E group significantly decreased TG (–17 ± 25%, p < 0.01), whereas M group increased (+ 15%, p < 0.01). The difference in TG between the groups favored E compared to M group (p < 0.01). These results suggest that short-term “hypertrophic” ST alone mainly improves strength and functional capacity performance, but it influences metabolic and hormonal profile of healthy older women to a lesser extent. In this group of previously untrained older women, time-of-day did not have a major effect on outcome variables, but some evidence suggests that training in the morning may be more beneficial for muscle hypertrophy (i.e. only M significantly increased muscle mass and had larger effect size (M: g = 2 vs. E: g = 0.5).