Acute Treatment with a Novel TRPC4/C5 Channel Inhibitor Produces Antidepressant and Anxiolytic-Like Effects in Mice

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are widely expressed in brain and involved in various aspects of brain function. Both TRPC4 and TRPC5 have been implicated in innate fear function, which represents a key response to environmental stress. However, to what extent the TRPC4/C5 channels are involved in psychiatric disorders remains unexplored. Here, we tested the antidepressant and anxiolytic-like effects of a newly identified TRPC4/C5 inhibitor, M084. We show that a single intraperitoneal administration of M084 at 10 mg/kg body weight to C57BL/6 male mice significantly shortened the immobility time in forced swim test and tail suspension test within as short as 2 hours. The M084-treated mice spent more time exploring in illuminated and open areas in light/dark transition test and elevated plus maze test. In mice subjected to chronic unpredictable stress, M084 treatment reversed the enhanced immobility time in forced swim test and decreased the latency to feed in novelty suppressed feeding test. The treatment of M084 increased BDNF expression in both mRNA and protein levels, as well as phosphorylation levels of AKT and ERK, in prefrontal cortex. Our results indicate that M084 exerts rapid antidepressant and anxiolytic-like effects at least in part by acting on BDNF and its downstream signaling. We propose M084 as a lead compound for further druggability research.     

Electroconvulsive seizures increase levels of pGlu-Glu-Pro-NH2 (EEP) in rat brain

We have previously reported that electroconvulsive seizures (ECS) increases the level of prepro-TRH-derived peptides in hippocampus, amygdala and pyriform cortex but not the striatum of male rats and that this increase is significantly correlated with reduced immobility (increased swimming) in the Porsolt forced swim test. An abstract by Mabrouk and Bennett published in 1993 described increased locomotor activity in rats following IP injection of TRH (pGlu-His-Pro-NH2) and EEP (pGlu-Glu-Pro-NH2). We have examined the effect of three daily transcorneal ECS on the levels of EEP in various brain regions and their correlation with results from the Porsolt forced swim test. The EEP level (ng/g wet weight) was measured by RIA in 6 brain regions: amygdala (AY), hippocampus (HC), pyriform cortex (PYR), anterior cortex (AC), striatum (STR) and motor cortex (MC). ECS significantly increased EEP levels in AY, HC and PYR. The increased swim behavior following ECS, as measured in the Porsolt test, correlated significantly with the EEP levels in HC and MC within individual subjects. Intraperitoneal (IP) injection of EEP (1.0 mg/kg) resulted in a rapid and sustained rise in EEP levels throughout the brain and a clearance half-time from blood of 2.0 h. Intracardiac injection of 0.5 mg EEP resulted in a peak EEP level in CSF at 2 h followed by a t1/2 of 0.35 h. A 3 compartment model for EEP transport from blood into CSF and then brain was developed. This model revealed a 1.75 h delay in the transit time of EEP from blood to CSF followed by rapid clearance from the CSF but long retention time within various brain tissues. We conclude that (1) ECS significantly increases EEP levels in limbic regions, but not in striatum, of the rat brain, (2) EEP, like TRH, is a potential mediator of the antidepressant effect of ECS and (3) EEP, after IP or IV administration, is readily taken up by, and has a long residence time in, brain tissue.     

人参总皂苷和远志总苷配伍对小鼠抗抑郁作用

目的确定人参总皂苷（GTS）和远志总苷（PTG）抗抑郁配伍剂量比例,形成参远苷（SGY）制剂,为研制开发抗抑郁新药提供实验数据。方法采用析因设计方法,GTS和PTG均选取25、50、100 mg/kg三个剂量,按照完全随机的两因素3×3实验设计,得到参远苷的9个不同配比组。C57BL/6J小鼠（用于悬尾实验）和ICR小鼠（用于强迫游泳实验）随机分为对照组、阳性药组（10 mg/kg,帕罗西汀用于悬尾实验;阿米替林用于强迫游泳实验）及参远苷的9个不同配比组,共11组。灌胃给药7 d,观察各组对悬尾或强迫游泳实验小鼠不动时间的影响,并通过空场实验观察参远苷各配比对小鼠自主活动的影响。参远苷与单味GTS、PTG的抗抑郁作用比较实验中,C57BL/6J小鼠（用于悬尾实验）和ICR小鼠（用于强迫游泳实验）随机分为对照组、阳性药组（10 mg/kg,帕罗西汀用于悬尾实验;阿米替林用于强迫游泳实验）、参远苷低中高剂量组（37.5、75、150 mg/kg）、GTS和PTG各四个剂量组（均为18.75、37.5、75、150 mg/kg）,共13组。灌胃给药7 d,观察各组对悬尾或强迫游泳实验小鼠不动时间的影响。结果析因设计结果表明,GTS和PTG之间无交互效应。参远苷配比组75 mg/kg（GTS∶PTG为50∶25）及150mg.kg-1（GTS∶PTG为100∶50）显著并稳定缩短悬尾或强迫游泳不动时间（P〈0.05）,得出GTS和PTG的剂量配伍比例为2：1。空场实验结果显示,参远苷各配比对小鼠运动总路程无影响。参远苷与单味GTS、PTG抗抑郁作用比较实验结果显示,GTS 75、150 mg/kg缩短悬尾实验小鼠不动时间（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）,对强迫游泳实验小鼠不动时间无影响。PTG 18.75、37.5 mg/kg缩短强迫游泳实验小鼠不动时间（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）,对悬尾实验小鼠不动时间无影响。参远苷75、150 mg/kg缩短悬尾实验小鼠不动时间（P〈0.05）。同时,参远苷37.5、75 mg/kg缩短强迫游泳实验小鼠不动时间（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）。结论 GTS和PTG以2：1的比例形成的参远苷（SYG）制剂,质量容易控制,作用机制多样,符合抑郁症复杂多样的发病机制,优于单味GTS和PTG,进一步研究之后,有可能成为新型的抗抑郁药物。     

Effect of ACTH on the imipramine- and desipramine-induced decrease in duration of immobility time as measured in a rat forced swimming test.

In a rat forced swimming test (FS), we examined the effect of repeated injections of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) for 14 days on the decreased duration of immobility time produced by imipramine and desipramine. Both imipramine (15 and 30 mg/kg, p.o.) and desipramine (15 and 30 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly decreased the duration of immobility time in the FS. On the other hand, ACTH (100 microg/kg, i.p.) alone did not affect the duration of immobility time in FS. When ACTH (100 microg/kg, i.p.) was injected for 14 days before the 15-min swim session, it counteracted the decreased duration of immobility time induced by both imipramine and desipramine. Thus, ACTH seems to play a key role in decreasing the duration of immobility time of antidepressants in this test.     

Amphetamine withdrawal: a behavioral evaluation

The effects of withdrawal from long-term amphetamine treatment of intracranial self-stimulation, forced swim-induced immobility, shuttle escape performance, acoustic startle and locomotor activity were evaluated. Mice implanted with stimulating electrodes in the lateral hypothalamus demonstrated stable and reliable rates of self-stimulation responding. After exposure to a chronic schedule of amphetamine treatment response rates were severely depressed. In addition to modifying intracranial self-stimulation responding, amphetamine withdrawal increased the duration of immobility in a forced-swim situation. Although chronic amphetamine exposure induced pronounced behavioral changes in the intracranial self-stimulation and forced swim tasks, drug withdrawal had little effect on shuttle escape performance, acoustic startle and locomotor activity. Based on these findings it was suggested that the development of post-amphetamine depression in the self-stimulation and forced swim paradigms was not related to variations in motoric or arousal mechanisms resulting from amphetamine withdrawal, but rather involved drug-induced changes in motivational processes.     

天麻素对CUS大鼠抑郁样行为和海马BDNF/GDNF水平的影响

目的:探讨天麻素对慢性不可预见应激(CUS)大鼠抑郁样行为的改善作用及对海马脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)及胶质原纤维酸性蛋白(GDNF)表达的影响。方法:将64只SD大鼠随机分为对照组(Sham),Sham+天麻素低、中、高剂量组,模型组(CUS),模型(CUS)+天麻素低、中、高剂量组,每组8只。对照组每天腹腔注射生理盐水(1 m L/kg),连续14天;Sham+天麻素低、中、高剂量组每天腹腔注射不同剂量的天麻素(50、100或者200 mg/kg),连续14天;模型组接受CUS造模,并且在造模结束后每天腹腔注射生理盐水(1 m L/kg),连续14天;模型+天麻素低、中、高剂量组在CUS造模结束后每天腹腔注射不同剂量的天麻素(50、100或者200 mg/kg),持续14天。随后,通过糖水偏好实验和强迫游泳实验检测各组大鼠的抑郁样行为,在行为学检测结束后处死大鼠,通过Elisa检测海马GFAP和BDNF的表达情况。结果:(1)慢性不可预见应激(CUS)可以导致明显的抑郁样行为,包括糖水偏好减少(P0.05)和强迫游泳不动时间增加(P0.01),CUS组大鼠海马GFAP和BDNF水平下降(P0.01)。(2)一定剂量(100和200 mg/Kg)天麻素干预可以缓解CUS大鼠的抑郁行为,CUS与CUS+GAS(M)组(P0.05)以及CUS与CUS+GAS(H)组之间(P0.01)存在显著性差异。(3)中高剂量的天麻素可以恢复CUS大鼠海马的BDNF和GDNF水平,CUS与CUS+GAS(M)组(P0.05)以及CUS与CUS+GAS(H)组之间(P0.05)的BDNF和GDNF水平存在显著性差异。结论:天麻素可以缓解CUS模型大鼠抑郁样行为,恢复CUS模型大鼠海马的BDNF和GDNF水平。     

The prolonged increase in thyrotropin-releasing hormone in rat limbic forebrain regions following electroconvulsive shock

We have previously demonstrated substantial increases in thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in specific regions of rat forebrain two days after single or repeated alternate-day electroconvulsive shock (ECS). To determine longer term effects of ECS-induced seizures on forebrain TRH content, we extended the time of the post-ECS observations to 6 and 12 days following 1 (ECS x 1) or 3 (ECS x 3) alternate-day ECS. Previous observations at 2 days post-ECS were confirmed except that hippocampal content of TRH was higher after ECS x 1. In pyriform cortex TRH remained elevated for 6 days after ECS x 1 and 3, and for 12 days after ECS x 3. In hippocampus TRH was elevated for 6 days after ECS x 1 and tended to remain elevated beyond 2 days after ECS x 3. In anterior cortex the increase persisted 6 days after ECS x 1 and 12 days after ECS x 3. These data show that convulsive seizures can induce sustained elevations of TRH beyond 48 h. This finding may be especially important in pyriform cortex and hippocampus where TRH may function as an endogenous anti-epileptic. Our data are also consistent with a possible role for TRH in affective regulation in the hippocampus, amygdala, pyriform and other cortical regions. Moreover, the present results further advance the analogy of the time-course of the TRH changes in rat to the course of the antidepressant response to electroconvulsive treatment in humans.     

Maternal Deprivation Enhances Behavioral Vulnerability to Stress Associated with miR-504 Expression in Nucleus Accumbens of Rats

Objective

In this study, the effect of maternal deprivation (MD) and chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) in inducing depressive behaviors and associated molecular mechanism were investigated in rats.

Methods

Maternal deprivation was established by separating pups from their mothers for 6 hours daily from postnatal day 1 to day 14. Chronic unpredictable stress was established by water deprivation, elevated open platform, food deprivation, restraint stress and electric foot shock. The depressive behaviors were determined by use of sucrose preference test and forced swim test.

Results

Rats in MD/CUS group exhibited lower sucrose preference rate, longer immobility time, and lighter body weights than rats in other groups (MD/control, non-MD/CUS and non-MD/control group). Meanwhile, higher miR-504 expression and lower dopamine receptor D1 (DRD1) and D2 (DRD2) expression were observed in the nucleus accumbens of rats in the MD/CUS group than in the other three groups. MiR-504 expression correlated negatively with DRD1 gene expression and sucrose preference rate in the sucrose preference test, but correlated positively with immobility time in forced swim test. Both DRD2 mRNA and protein expression correlated negatively with immobility time in forced swim test.

Conclusion

These results suggest that MD enhances behavioral vulnerability to stress during adulthood, which is associated with the upregulation of miR-504 and downregulation of DRD2 expression in the nucleus accumbens.     

Long-term effects of nicotine on the forced swimming test in mice: an experimental model for the study of depression caused by smoke

Large evidence showing an association between depression and tobacco smoking is known. Nicotine is the active chemical responsible for smoking addiction, and its withdrawal may induce in smokers greater sensitivity to stress. Our aim has been to investigate the links between tobacco addiction and depression by studying the long-term effects of repeated administration of nicotine followed by dependence, to forced swimming test, serotonin content and 5-HT(1A) expression in diencephalon. Dependence has been induced by daily subcutaneous injection in mice of nicotine (2mg/kg four injections daily) for 15 days and assessed after nicotine withdrawal with an abstinence scale; control animals received daily subcutaneous injection of saline for the same period. Experiments on forced swimming test have been carried out at t=0 (last day of nicotine or saline treatment), and 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after saline or nicotine withdrawal. Both control mice and nicotine mice have been pre-treated with oral 5-hydroxy-tryptophan (12.5-50mg/kg), precursor of serotonin, before forced swimming test. Nicotine mice have shown on forced swimming test a significant increase of immobility time compared to control mice. This increase was not evident in nicotine mice treated with 5-hydroxy-tryptophan and treatment with the selective serotonin receptorial antagonist WAY 100635 (WAY) abolished 5-hydroxy-tryptophan effects. Evaluation of diencephalic serotonin, performed at t=0 showed an increase of diencephalic serotonin content, while serotonin measured 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after nicotine withdrawal, was significantly reduced in nicotine mice compared to control mice. Western blot analysis showed a great reduction of 5-HT(1A) receptor expression in nicotine mice measured at t=0 (last day of treatment) and at 15 and 30 days after nicotine withdrawal compared to control mice. Our results show that (i) behavioural alterations estimated with forced swimming test and (ii) changes in diencephalic serotonin content and 5-HT(1A) receptor expression, are present since nicotine is withdrawn even after a long time, suggesting a role of serotonin in mood disorders eventually occurring following smoking cessation.     

Neonatal Morphine Administration Leads to Changes in Hippocampal BDNF Levels and Antioxidant Enzyme Activity in the Adult Life of Rats

It is know that repeated exposure to opiates impairs spatial learning and memory and that the hippocampus has important neuromodulatory effects after drug exposure and withdrawal symptoms. Thus, the aim of this investigation was to assess hippocampal levels of BDNF, oxidative stress markers associated with cell viability, and TNF-α in the short, medium and long term after repeated morphine treatment in early life. Newborn male Wistar rats received subcutaneous injections of morphine (morphine group) or saline (control group), 5 μg in the mid-scapular area, starting on postnatal day 8 (P8), once daily for 7 days, and neurochemical parameters were assessed in the hippocampus on postnatal days 16 (P16), 30 (P30), and 60 (P60). For the first time, we observed that morphine treatment in early life modulates BDNF levels in the medium and long term and also modulates superoxide dismutase activity in the long term. In addition, it was observed effect of treatment and age in TNF-α levels, and no effects in lactate dehydrogenase levels, or cell viability. These findings show that repeated morphine treatment in the neonatal period can lead to long-lasting neurochemical changes in the hippocampus of male rats, and indicate the importance of cellular and intracellular adaptations in the hippocampus after early-life opioid exposure to tolerance, withdrawal and addiction.     

Intracerebroventricular 4-methylcatechol (4-MC) ameliorates chronic pain associated with depression-like behavior via induction of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

Neuropathic pain concurrent with mood disorder from peripheral nerve injury is a serious clinical problem that significantly affects quality of life. Recent studies have suggested that a lack of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the limbic system may cause this pain-emotion. BDNF is induced in cultured neurons by 4-methylcatechol (4-MC), but the role of 4-MC-induced BDNF in pain-emotion is poorly understood. Thus, we assessed the possible involvement of BDNF in brain in depression-like behavior during chronic pain following peripheral nerve injury. In addition, we examined whether intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) 4-MC prevents chronic pain in rats and produces an antidepressant effect. Sprague-Dawley rats implanted intracerebroventricularly with a PE-10 tube were subjected to chronic constriction injury (CCI). Pain was assessed by a reduction in paw withdrawal latency (PWL) to heat stimuli after CCI. We also used a forced swimming testing (FST; time of immobility, in seconds) from day 14 to day 21 after CCI. Modulation of pain and emotional behavior was performed by injection of PD0325901 (a MEK1/2 inhibitor). 4-MC (100 nM) was continuously administered i.c.v. for 3 days during the period from day 14 to day 21 after CCI. To block analgesic and antidepressant effects, anti-BDNF antibody or K252a (a TrkB receptor inhibitor) was injected in combination with 4-MC. Naloxone was also coadministered to confirm the analgesic effect of 4-MC. During the chronic stage after CCI, the rats showed a sustained decrease in PWL (thermal hyperalgesia) associated with extension of the time of immobility (depression-like behavior). PD0325901 significantly reduced the decrease in PWL and the increased time of immobility after CCI. The decreased PWL and increased time of immobility were also reduced by 4-MC and by treatment with an ERK1/2 inhibitor. These effects of 4-MC i.c.v. were reversed by anti-BDNF and K252a. The analgesic effect of 4-MC i.c.v. was also antagonized by naloxone. Based on these results, we suggest that a lack of BDNF and activation of ERK1/2 in the pain-emotion network in the CNS may be involved in depression-like behavior during chronic pain. 4-MC i.c.v. ameliorates chronic pain and depression-like behavior by producing of BDNF and normalization of ERK1/2 activation. Therefore, enhancement of BDNF may be a new treatment strategy for chronic pain associated with depression.     

Enhanced BDNF Signaling is Associated with an Antidepressant-like Behavioral Response and Changes in Brain Monoamines

1. Neurotrophins and serotonin have both been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and in the mechanisms of antidepressant treatments. 2. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) influences the growth and plasticity of serotonergic (5-HT) neurons via the activation of trkB receptor. 3. Transgenic mice overexpressing the full-length trkB receptor (TrkB.TK+) and showing increased trkB activity in brain, and their wild type (WT) littermates, were injected with the antidepressant fluoxetine or saline, and analyzed behaviorally in the forced swimming test paradigm and biochemically for the concentrations of brain monoamines and their metabolites. 4. The TrkB.TK+ mice displayed increased latency to immobility in the forced swim test, suggesting resistance to behavioral despair. 5. Fluoxetine increased the latency to immobility in wild-type mice to a similar level as seen in the trkB.TK+ mice after saline treatment, but had no further behavioral effect in the swimming behavior of the trkB.TK+ mice. 6. Only minor differences in the levels of brain monoamines and their metabolites were observed between the transgenic and wild-type mice. 7. These data, together with other recent observations, suggest that trkB activation may play a critical role in the behavioral responses to antidepressant drugs in mice.     

Different affective response to opioid withdrawal in adolescent and adult mice

AimsDrug withdrawal is suggested to play a role in precipitating mood disorders in individuals with familial predisposition. Age-related differences in affective responses to withdrawal might explain the increased risk of mental illnesses when drug use begins during adolescence. Since there is a lack of animal research examining the effects of opioid withdrawal during adolescence, the present study examined whether there are age-related differences in affective responses to opioid withdrawal.Main methodsAdolescent and adult mice were injected with two different morphine regimens, namely low and high, which differed in the dosage. Three and nine days following discontinuation of morphine administration, immobility time in the forced swim test (FST) and locomotion (total distance traveled) were evaluated.Key findingsOn withdrawal day 3 (WD3), adolescent mice exhibited a decrease in immobility as compared to controls. No significant differences in immobility were observed on withdrawal day 9 (WD9). This effect on FST behaviors was not due to changes in overall motor activity, since no differences in locomotion were observed on either WD3 or WD9 in adolescent mice. In adults, no differences in either FST or locomotor behaviors were observed on WD3. As expected, on WD9, adult mice exhibited an increase in immobility and a decrease in locomotion.SignificanceThis study demonstrates age-dependent differences in both FST scores and locomotor behaviors during opioid withdrawal. FST behaviors are classically used to evaluate mood in rodents, thus this study suggests that opioid withdrawal might affect mood differentially across age.     

The antianxiety-like effect of astaxanthin extracted from Paracoccus carotinifaciens

Astaxanthin is a red carotenoid pigment and is widely found in living organisms. Astaxanthin has a potent antioxidative ability and has been reported as having various biological effects on the central nerve system, such as a protective effect against ischemia/reperfusion injury and improvement in cognitive function. In this study, to investigate the effects of astaxanthin on anxiety and depression, we performed some behavioral trials including the elevated plus maze test, hole-board test, forced swim test, and tail suspension test. Astaxanthin (100 and 300 mg/kg/day for 10 days, p.o.) significantly increased the time spent in open arms in the elevated plus maze test and increased the head-dipping count and duration in the hole-board test. On the other hand, astaxanthin (10, 100, 300, and 500 mg/kg/day for 10 days, p.o.) did not change the immobility time in the forced swim test or the tail suspension test. In conclusion, in mice, astaxanthin exerted anxiolytic-like effects, but not antidepressant-like effects.     

Using the rat forced swim test to assess antidepressant-like activity in rodents

The forced swim test (FST) is one of the most commonly used animal models for assessing antidepressant-like behavior. This protocol details using the FST in rats, which takes place over 48 h and is followed by the video analysis of the behavior. The swim test involves the scoring of active (swimming and climbing) or passive (immobility) behavior when rodents are forced to swim in a cylinder from which there is no escape. There are two versions that are used, namely the traditional and modified FSTs, which differ in their experimental setup. For both versions, a pretest of 15 min (although a number of laboratories have used a 10-min pretest with success) is included, as this accentuates the different behaviors in the 5-min swim test following drug treatment. Reduction in passive behavior is interpreted as an antidepressant-like effect of the manipulation, provided it does not increase general locomotor activity, which could provide a false positive result in the FST.     

Piperine Reverses Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress-Induced Behavioral and Biochemical Alterations in Rats

Previous studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that piperine produced antidepressant-like action in various mouse models of behavioral despair, which was related to the serotonergic system. The present study aimed to examine the behavioral and biochemical effects of piperine in rats exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). The results showed that CUMS caused depression-like behavior in rats, as indicated by the significant decrease in sucrose consumption and increase in immobility time in the forced swim test. In addition, it was found that serotonin (5-HT) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) contents in the hippocampus and frontal cortex were significantly decreased in CUMS-treated rats. Treating the animals with piperine significantly suppressed behavioral and biochemical changes induced by CUMS. The results suggest that piperine produces an antidepressant-like effect in CUMS-treated rats, which is possibly mediated by increasing 5-HT and BDNF contents in selective brain tissues.     

Infantile stage of rat development in behavioral parameters of depression-like state and pain response

In the 7–8- and the 10–11-day old male rat pups born to dams exposed to an immobilization stress for the last week of pregnancy and to the dams exposed to no stress (control), behavioral parameters were studied: the level of depression in the test of forced swimming (the Porsolt’s test) and 24 h after a long pain response during inflammation (the formalin test—a subcutaneous injection of 2.5% formalin into the hind leg plantar pad). In control pups, significant age-related changes in the forced swimming were revealed: the immobility time was longer in animals of the older age group, whereas no age differences were found in parameters of the persistent inflammatory pain and in flexing + shaking behavior. The prenatal stress produced an increase in the immobility time and the flexing + shaking behavior in the 7–8-day old, but not in the 10–11-day old rat pups. This resulted in elimination of the age differences in the immobility time in the prenatally stressed animals. Thus, use of different methodic approaches has allowed revealing peculiarities in the parameters of the degree of depression and duration of the pain response at inflammation in the 7–8- and 10–11-day old rat pups, which indicates heterogeneity of the infantile development stage that, according to literature data, includes in rats the period from the 5th to the 10th postnatal days.     

The antidepressant-like effect of Ocimum basilicum in an animal model of depression

We investigated the efficacy of Ocimum basilicum (OB) essential oils for treating depression related behavioral, biochemical and histopathological changes caused by exposure to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) in mice and to explore the mechanism underlying the pathology. Male albino mice were divided into four groups: controls; CUMS; CUMS plus fluoxetine, the antidepressant administered for pharmacological validation of OB; and CUMS plus OB. Behavioral tests included the forced swim test (FST), elevated plus-maze (EPM) and the open ?eld test (OFT); these tests were performed at the end of the experiment. We assessed serum corticosterone level, protein, gene and immunoexpression of brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) as well as immunoexpression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Ki67, caspase-3 in the hippocampus. CUMS caused depression in the mice as evidenced by prolonged immobility in the FST, prolonged time spent in the open arms during the EPM test and reduction of open field activity in the OFT. OB ameliorated the CUMS induced depressive status. OB significantly reduced the corticosterone level and up-regulated protein and gene expressions of BDNF and GR. OB reduced CUMS induced hippocampal neuron atrophy and apoptosis, and increased the number of the astrocytes and new nerve cells. OB significantly increased GFAP-positive cells as well as BDNF and GR immunoexpression in the hippocampus.     

The involvement of AMPA–ERK1/2–BDNF pathway in the mechanism of new antidepressant action of prokinetic meranzin hydrate

It was recently discovered that ketamine can relieve depression in a matter of hours through an action on α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors. This is much more rapid than the several weeks required for the available antidepressants to show therapeutic efficacy. However, ketamine has negative side effects. The aim of this study was to determine whether the natural prokinetic drug meranzin hydrate (MH) has a fast-acting antidepressant effect mediated by AMPA receptors. By means of in vivo and in vitro experiments, we found that (1) treatment of rats with MH at 9 mg/kg decreased immobility time in a forced swimming test (FST), as did the popular antidepressant fluoxetine and the AMPA receptor positive modulator aniracetam. Pretreatment of rats with NBQX (10 mg/kg), an antagonist of AMPA receptors, blocked this effect of MH. (2) MH increased number of crossings of forced swimming rats in the open field test. (3) FST enhanced hippocampal ERK1/2, p-ERK1/2 and BDNF expression levels. MH (9 mg/kg) treatment further up-regulated hippocampal p-ERK1/2 and BDNF expression levels, and this effect was prevented by NBQX. (4) MH-increased BDNF expression corresponded with MH-decreased immobility time in the FST. (5) In vitro experiments, we found that incubation of rats hippocampus slices with MH (10, 20 μM respectively) increased concentrations of BDNF and p-ERK1/2. This effect of MH (20 μM) were prevented by NBQX. In conclusion, in animals subjected to acute stress, the natural prokinetic drug MH produced a rapid effect mediated by AMPA receptors and involving BDNF modulation through the ERK1/2 pathway.     

Phencyclidine animal models of schizophrenia: approaches from abnormality of glutamatergic neurotransmission and neurodevelopment

In humans, phencyclidine (PCP), a non-competitive N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, reproduces a schizophrenia-like psychosis including positive symptoms, negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction. Thus, the glutamatergic neuronal dysfunction hypothesis is one of the main explanatory hypotheses and PCP-treated animals have been utilized as an animal model of schizophrenia. The adult rodents treated with PCP repeatedly exhibit hyperlocomotion as an index of positive symptoms, a social behavioral deficit in a social interaction test and enhanced immobility in a forced swimming test as indices of negative symptoms. They also show a sensorimotor gating deficits and cognitive dysfunctions in several learning and memory tests. Some of these behavioral changes endure after withdrawal from repeated PCP treatment. Furthermore, repeated PCP treatment induces some neurochemical and neuroanatomical changes. On the other hand, the exposure to viral or environmental insult in the second trimester of pregnancy increases the probability of subsequently developing schizophrenia as an adult. NMDA receptor has been implicated in controlling the structure and plasticity of developing brain circuitry. Based on neurodevelopment hypothesis of schizophrenia, schizophrenia model rats treated with PCP at the perinatal stage is developed. Perinatal PCP treatment impairs neuronal development and induces long-lasting schizophrenia-like behaviors in adult period. Many findings suggest that these PCP animal models would be useful for evaluating novel therapeutic candidates and for confirming pathological mechanisms of schizophrenia.