Automated life-detection experiments for the Viking mission to Mars

As part of the Viking mission to Mars in 1975, an automated set of instruments is being built to test for the presence of metabolizing organisms on that planet. Three separate modules are combined in this instrument so that samples of the Martian surface can be subjected to a broad array of experimental conditions so as to measure biological activity. The first, the Pyrolytic Release Module, will expose surface samples to a mixture of C¹⁴O and C¹⁴O₂ in the presence of Martian atmosphere and a light source that simulates the Martian visible spectrum. The assay system is designed to determine the extent of assimilation of CO or CO₂ into organic compounds. A small amount of water can be injected into the gas phase during incubation upon command. The Gas Exchange Module will incubate surface samples in a humidified CO₂ atmosphere. At specified times, portions of the incubation atmosphere will be analyzed by gas chromatography to detect the release or uptake of CO₂ and several additional gases. A rich and diversified source of organic nutrients and trace compounds will be available as further additions to the incubating samples. The Label Release Module will incubate surface samples with a dilute aqueous solution of simple radioactive organic substrates in Martian atmosphere, and the gas phase will be monitored continuously for the release of labeled CO₂. Each module, in addition to its gas and nutrient sources, incubation chambers, and detector systems, contains heaters capable of sterilizing surface samples to serve as controls. Since the instrument is designed to operate under Martian conditions and to detect Martian, not terrestrial, organisms, and because the final flight instruments can perform only four assays for each module, formidable problems exist in testing the hardware. The implications of this situation are discussed.     

Management of psychiatric problems in a Kenyan mission hospital.

Many psychiatric conditions are found in the rural general hospital in Kenya and are recognisable and manageable along standard Western lines. An essential element in management is the training of the nursing staff. The psychiatric patient should be actively managed and can benefit from the unsophisticated treatment possible at the mission hospital.     

Psychophysiological issues of manned space flights

The article deals with some issues of psychophysiological support (PPS) of manned space flights discussed with Academician O.G. Gazenko. It has been shown that even at the initial stages of development of space flights (SFs), monitoring and evaluation of the mental state and working capacity of crew members were regarded as the key components of PPS and merited special comprehensive studies with the development of associated methods. The polyeffectors method for recording physiological functions, such as electrocardiogram, electroencephalogram, and skin-galvanic reaction, was recognized as a potent tool in gathering information for the assessment of the current state of health. In the period of the performance of long-term orbital flights, starting with the 96-day flight of Yu. Romanenko and G. Grechko, the system of psychological support developed at the Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP), under the leadership of Gazenko was introduced into PPS, and then used in all flights of the stations Salyut and Mir, and now at the International Space Station. Evidently, the use of this system made a significant contribution to the PPS and maintenance of health and working efficiency of crews.     

Way to the detection of Mars life]

In this review, I would like to introduce how we can detect the possible life on Mars. Even though the quantitative estimation of the possibility of biogenesis on Mars is difficult, Dr. McKay and his colleagues work has thrown a tiny light for this possibility. Considering Mars environmental conditions, the possible life is microorganisms. The detection of microorganisms in natural environments is not easy even on Earth due to the premature detection technique. We have developed a method based on the fluorescence microscopic technique. This method proved to be successful for the detection of terrestrial microorganisms. Even some pre-biotic cells can be detected. We are developing a miniature detection apparatus which meet the required standard for installing on the Mars landers. We also propose the ground based experiments using Martian meteorites or pseudo-Martian rocks.     

Immunological aspects of a space flight to Mars

The effects on the immune system of a 520-day isolation in a confined environment, simulating some conditions of a manned space flight to Mars, have been studied. A set of signs of adaptational reorganization, including quantitative and functional changes in innate and adaptive immunity, have been recorded. The most significant ones include the changes in the system of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) manifested as a decrease in the content of circulating monocytes and granulocytes expressing TLR2, TLR4, and TLR6; a decrease in the functional capacity of cellular factors of natural cytotoxicity or natural killer cells (NK cells); an increased ability of T cells and B cells to express on their surface the CD69 early activation marker; and an increase in phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-induced secretion by cytokines in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Intense mobilization of adaptive immunity and qualitative changes of its functions demonstrates the adaptive adjustment of the body in response to the combined effect of unfavorable factors to preserve immune homeostasis.     

Monitoring of microbial degraders in manned space stations

Samples of microorganisms from the surface of constructions of Mir Space Station (Mir SS) were taken and examined after 13 years of operation. The following microorganisms were isolated and identified: 12 fungal species belonging to the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Aureobasidium; 3 yeast species belonging to the genera Debaryomyces, Candida, and Rhodotorula; and 4 bacterial species belonging to the genera Bacillus, Myxococcus, and Rhodococcus. The predominant species in all samples was Penicillium chrisogenum. It was shown that the fungi isolated could damage polymers and induce corrosion of aluminum-magnesium alloys. We commenced a study of microbial degraders on constructions of the Russian section of the International Space Station (RS ISS). Twenty-six species of fungi, bacteria, yeasts, and actinomycetes, known as active biodegraders, were identified in three sample sets taken at intervals. We founded a collection of microorganisms surviving throughout space flights. This collection can be used to test spacecraft production materials, in order to determine their resistance to biodegradation.     

Old Iron, Young Copper: from Mars to Venus

Iron and copper are metals which play an important role in the living world. From a brief consideration of their chemistry and biochemistry we conclude that the early chemistry of life used water soluble ferrous iron while copper was in the water-insoluble Cu(I) state as highly insoluble sulphides. The advent of oxygen was a catastrophic event for most living organisms, and can be considered to be the first general irreversible pollution of the earth. In contrast to the oxidation of iron and its loss of bioavailability as insoluble Fe(III), the oxidation of insoluble Cu(I) led to soluble Cu(II). A new iron biochemistry became possible after the advent of oxygen, with the development of chelators of Fe(III), which rendered iron once again accessible, and with the control of the potential toxicity of iron by its storage in a water soluble, non-toxic, bio-available storage protein (ferritin). Biology also discovered that whereas enzymes involved in anaerobic metabolism were designed to operate in the lower portion of the redox spectrum, the arrival of dioxygen created the need for a new redox active metal which could attain higher redox potentials. Copper, now bioavailable, was ideally suited to exploit the oxidizing power of dioxygen. The arrival of copper also coincided with the development of multicellular organisms which had extracellular cross-linked matrices capable of resisting attack by oxygen free radicals. After the initial `iron age' subsequent evolution moved, not towards a `copper age', but rather to an `iron-copper' age. In the second part of the review, this symbiosis of iron and copper is examined in yeast. We then briefly consider iron and copper metabolism in mammals, before looking at iron-copper interactions in mammals, particularly man, and conclude with the reflection that, as in Greek and Roman mythology, a better understanding of the potentially positive interactions between Mars (iron) and Venus (copper) can only be to the advantage of our species.