Determinants of contraceptive use and method choice in Turkey

In this study, the determinants of contraceptive use and method choice are examined based on various variables, classified as individual, cultural, fertility and contextual. The data used came from the 1993 Turkish Demographic and Health Survey. The main finding is that there exists a positive association between the educational level of both spouses and the use of contraceptive methods in Turkey. After all individual, cultural, fertility and contextual variables are controlled, a woman's education is a stronger predictor of method use and method choice than that of her husband. Increasing the educational level of women may be the most effective means of advancing family planning acceptance and increasing the demand for contraceptive services in Turkey. The study also shows that, to a great extent, contraceptive use and choice of modern method depend on the sex of a couple's living children, implying some preference for sons, although generally women prefer to have children of both sexes.     

Determinants of current contraceptive use and method choice in Mongolia

This study examines the determinants of current contraceptive use and method choice in Mongolia using data from the 1998 Mongolian Reproductive Health Survey and 2000 Mongolian Population and Housing Census. Since 1976, access to modern contraceptives has been liberalized and all restrictions on the use, distribution and import of contraceptives were removed in 1989. There were some increases in the use of modern contraceptives among married women in the 1990s; however, at the start of the twenty-first century the IUD and periodic abstinence remain the most widely used methods. Women with higher levels of education are more likely to be current users of contraception, and if they are current users, they are more likely to choose the IUD and traditional methods. Women living in rural areas have a higher probability of using contraception and are more likely to choose the IUD and traditional methods. Significant variations exist between primary sampling units in current contraceptive use and in the choice of modern methods. Community-level variables were important predictors in reducing variation between primary sampling unit, when other modern methods were compared with traditional methods.     

Habitat use and behaviour of European hedgehogErinaceus europaeus in a Danish rural area

HedgehogsErinaceus europaeus Linnaeus, 1758 were radio-tagged and monitored during the summer of 2001 in a Danish rural area with the objective of quantifying home ranges, nightly distances travelled, habitat use, activity patterns, day-nesting habits, and body-weight changes of the five males and five females being recorded. Males had larger home-range sizes and travelled longer nightly distances than females. The two most common habitat types within the home ranges of the hedgehogs were deciduous forest and arable land, whereas the two most frequently used habitat types were deciduous forest and grassland. No differences between the sexes were found in the proportions of different habitat types within the home ranges or in habitat use. Non-random habitat use was found; forested areas and edge habitats seemed preferred to open areas. The most frequently used day-nesting habitat was deciduous forest. Foraging was by far the most time-consuming nightly activity for both sexes. Males lost weight during the study period (May–July), whereas females gained weight. A peak in the frequency of sexual behaviour was found from late-June to mid-July. The high level of male ranging activity and the weight loss of males are interpreted as a consequence of the promiscuous mating system of hedgehogs.     

Illness behavior of housewives in a rural area in Japan: A health diary study

A health diary study was conducted to examine the incidence and nature of health problems and illness behavior among rural residents in Japan. Attention was paid in particular to the utilization of folk medicine or alternative practitioners in the context of illness behavior. One hundred and sixty-one health problems were recorded over a 4-week diary period by 28 housewives aged 35–64 years. Headache, tiredness and gastrointestinal problems were among the most common problems. Emotional/psychological problems, the most frequently recorded problems in the health diary studies conducted in the United States or England, were recorded by only 3 participants. Only 6 problems (3.7 percent) resulted in consulting a doctor. Three women utilized an acupuncturist, shinkyshi, during the diary period. Self-care, such as resting by lying down, using home remedies and self-medication including household drugs, Toyama kusuri and folk medicine, was practiced for 101 problems (62.7 percent). Folk medicine or alternative practitioners played important roles in the health seeking process. The health diary method was shown to be suitable not only to Western communities but also in a rural Japanese context.     

A seroepidemiological study of Japanese encephalitis and dengue virus infections in the Chiang Mai area, Thailand

As part of a virological and epidemiological survey of encephalitis in the Chiang Mai area, the neutralizing (N) antibody levels of healthy persons to Japanese encephalitis (JE) and dengue (DEN) type 1-4 viruses were examined. A total of 985 blood samples was collected by the filter paper method from subjects of nine age groups in five districts, four (Pasang, Sarapee, Doi Saket and Mae Taeng) in the Chiang Mai Valley and one (Fang) in another valley separated by several ranges of mountains from the Chiang Mai Valley. From analyses of the results of N tests on the specimens, the following conclusions were drawn about the prevalences of JE and DEN viruses in the Chiang Mai area: (1) In the Chiang Mai Valley, the percentage incidences of N antibodies to JE and DEN viruses increased with age and by the age of 15, two thirds or more of the residents had been infected with JE and all DEN viruses except DEN type 2 virus, which showed the lowest prevalence. (2) In the Fang district, the percentage incidence of N antibody to JE virus increased with age, but those to DEN viruses did not, indicating much lower prevalences in the past of all four serotypes of DEN viruses in this district than in the Chiang Mai Valley. (3) At present, most infants in the Chiang Mai area, including the Fang district, seem to be exposed to DEN viruses first and later to JE virus.     

A comparison of three methods to assess land use impacts on biodiversity in a case study of forestry plantations in New Zealand

Purpose

The aim of this study is apply available methods to assess impacts on biodiversity from the land use caused by plantation grown radiata pine in New Zealand in a life cycle assessment framework. This is done both to quantify the impact as well as compare the results obtained by different methods.

Methods

Data on location and productivity for wood supply regions in New Zealand was assessed using three methods identified as relevant for the purpose. All data were related to a functional unit of 1 m³ of timber production.

Results and discussion

The results show both a significant difference in impact on biodiversity from land use in the different wood supply regions and a significant difference in the results from the three applied methods. Although some of the results obtained from the three methods were correlated, this was not consistent through all the results. The methodological variation emanates from the treatment of the characteristics of the wood supply regions and underlying assumptions, e.g. reference vegetation. Compared to a case study in Norway, the impact on biodiversity from plantation forestry in New Zealand is found to be relatively low following the applied methods and assumptions taken.

Conclusions

The study shows a significant variation in how impacts on biodiversity are assessed following different approaches. Research to harmonize methods to quantify impact on biodiversity is recommended, as well as exploring effects of different weighting of crucial aspects of biodiversity, such as rarity, abundance and species richness.     

The hide-and-seek game: men's perspectives on abortion and contraceptive use within marriage in a rural community in Zimbabwe

This paper is based on a study aimed at understanding the perceptions of men to induced abortion and contraceptive use within marriage in rural Zimbabwe. Two qualitative methods were combined. Men were found to view abortion not as a reproductive health problem for women. Instead, they described abortion as a sign of illicit sexual activity and contraceptive use as a strategy married women use to conceal their involvement in extramarital sexual activity. Men felt anxious and vulnerable for lack of control over women. In the absence of verbal communication on sexual matters, women and men resort to what are called here 'hide-and-seek' strategies, where women acquire and use contraceptives secretly while men search for evidence of such use. It is concluded that promoting women's sexual and reproductive health requires both short- and long-term strategies. The short-term strategy would entail providing women with reproductive technology they can use without risking violence. The long-term strategy would entail understanding men's concerns and the way these are manifested. In turn this requires the use of methodologies that encourage dialogue with research participants, in order to capture their deep meanings and experiences.     

Effects of oral contraceptive use on body mass index and blood pressure among female villagers in north-east Thailand

The use of contraceptives has become prevalent among females in Thailand in the past 20 years, and oral contraceptive use has been suggested to trigger changes in fat intake, energy expenditure, fat metabolism and blood pressure. Based on field investigations of 391 married women aged 20 years or over in Yasothon Province, North-east Thailand, this study aims to elucidate the effects of oral contraceptive use on body mass index (BMI: kg/m2) and blood pressure, taking into account reproductive histories and socioeconomic conditions. The proportion of obese (BMI > or = 25) subjects was high in the age groups 30-39, 40-49 and 50-59, accounting for, respectively, 39.4%, 51.1% and 48.5% of these populations. The proportion of women with hypertension (90/140 mmHg) was 23.7%, 18.5% and 26.2% in the 40-49, 50-59 and 60-69 age groups. Current contraceptive practices in the studied population included sterilization by operation, oral contraception and injection. These methods accounted for 43.0%, 12.8% and 8.2% of the population, respectively. Sociodemographic factors such as reproductive history, years of education and household income were not significantly related to BMI or to blood pressure (ANOVA with age adjustment). In contrast, oral contraceptive users had significantly higher BMIs and diastolic blood pressures (p<0.01, ANOVA with age adjustment). Multiple regression analysis also revealed that oral contraceptive use was a weak but significant contributing factor to both high BMI and blood pressure when sociodemographic factors were taken into account and controlled for statistically. It can thus be concluded that the use of contraceptive pills, which contain oestrogen and progestin and are provided free of charge to Thai women, tend to increase BMI and to elevate blood pressure.     

Leaf area index determination in an alder forest: a comparison of three methods

Leaf area index (LAI) of a stand of adult black alder trees(Alnus glutinosa L., Gaertn.) was determined by means of threeindependent methods. (1) The seasonal course of LAI was directlyobtained by counting leaves in situ and adding up their areas,estimated from harvested subsamples of leaves. (2) The seasonalvariation of LAI in the stand was estimated using the Li-CorLAI-2000 PCA in parallel and with this instrument a VegetationArea Index (VAI, projected area of all phyto-elements) was actuallymeasured. (3) Maximum LAI was calculated from leaf litter collectionstaking into account specific leaf area within different layersof the alder crown. Direct LAI estimates (1) and calculationsfrom leaf litter (3) revealed the same figure of maximum LAI(4.8). This LAI was reached in August. The LAI-2000 PCA capturedthe seasonal variation and underestimated, by 11% on average,the LAI obtained directly. Compared with results gained withother broad-leaved tree species the LAI-2000 PCA values foralder were reliable. It is suggested that this is due to thehorizontal homogeneous structure of the main leaf layer. Thisis in the periphery of the crown, where 90% of the light interceptionoccurs. Taking the het-erogeneity into account a satisfactorycompatibility of the three methods applied to the alder standwas achieved. Key words: Alnus glutinosa, leaf area index, in situ counting, LAI-2000 PCA, litter collections     

A comparison of four methods for measuring roots of field crops in three contrasting soils

Rooting measurements have been made at different growth stages for sugar beets (1987) and for cereals (1988) on three different sites using four different root measurement techniques: (a) the core method where roots were extracted and root length is directly measured, (b) the core-break method where the visible roots were counted on the faces of a broken soil column, (c) the trench profile wall method where the number of visible roots were counted and the root length density was estimated on a profile wall, and (d) the monolith method where the roots were extracted from monoliths dug out from a profile wall. The calibration curves between the field methods and the extraction methods were not linear, and regression coefficients differed significantly between different sites, crops and between fields with different agronomic management, e.g. irrigation and liquid manure application. Differences between growth stages were comparably low compared with those found between locations. Root length densities obtained with the trench profile method were on average 10-fold lower in the sand brown earth, 6-fold lower in the vertisol and 4 times lower in the cambisol compared to data obtained with the core method. It is therefore concluded that the core-break method and the trench profile wall method deliver no reliable data for comparing rooting intensities between different soils and between different crops if they are not calibrated with an extraction method for each site and crop.     

Taenia solium Infections in a rural area of Eastern Zambia-a community based study

Background

Taenia solium taeniosis/cysticercosis is a parasitic infection occurring in many developing countries. Data on the status of human infections in Zambia is largely lacking. We conducted a community-based study in Eastern Zambia to determine the prevalence of human taeniosis and cysticercosis in a rural community.

Methods and Findings

Stool and serum samples were collected from willing participants. Geographical references of the participants'' households were determined and household questionnaires administered. Taeniosis was diagnosed in stool samples by coprology and by the polyclonal antibody-based copro-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (copro-Ag ELISA), while cysticercosis was diagnosed in serum by the B158/B60 monoclonal antibody-based antigen ELISA (sero-Ag ELISA). Identification of the collected tapeworm after niclosamide treatment and purgation was done using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). A total of 255 households from 20 villages participated in the study, 718 stool and 708 serum samples were collected and examined. Forty-five faecal samples (6.3%) were found positive for taeniosis on copro-Ag ELISA while circulating cysticercus antigen was detected in 5.8% (41/708) individuals. The tapeworm recovered from one of the cases was confirmed to be T. solium on PCR-RFLP. Seropositivity (cysticercosis) was significantly positively related to age (p = 0.00) and to copro-Ag positivity (taeniosis) (p = 0.03) but not to gender. Change point analysis revealed that the frequency of cysticercus antigens increased significantly in individuals above the age of 30. Copro-Ag positivity was not related to age or gender. The following risk factors were noted to be present in the study community: free-range pig husbandry system and poor sanitation with 47.8% of the households visited lacking latrines.

Conclusions

This study has recorded high taeniosis and cysticercosis prevalences and identified the need for further studies on transmission dynamics and impact of the disease on the local people.     

Children's traditional ecological knowledge of wild food resources: a case study in a rural village in Northeast Thailand

An ethnobotanical study was conducted from October 2005 to June 2006 to investigate the uses of medicinal plants by people in Zegie Peninsula, northwestern Ethiopia. Information was gathered from 200 people: 70 female and 130 males, using semistructured questionnaire. Of which, six were male local healers. The informants, except the healers, were selected randomly and no appointment was made prior to the visits. Informant consensus factor (ICF) for category of aliments and the fidelity level (FL) of the medicinal plants were determined. Sixty-seven medicinal plants used as a cure for 52 aliments were documented. They are distributed across 42 families and 64 genera. The most frequently utilized plant part was the underground part (root/rhizome/bulb) (42%). The largest number of remedies was used to treat gastrointestinal disorder and parasites infections (22.8%) followed by external injuries and parasites infections (22.1%). The administration routes are oral (51.4%), external (38.6%), nasal (7.9%), and ear (2.1%). The medicinal plants that were presumed to be effective in treating a certain category of disease, such as 'mich' and febrile diseases (0.80) had higher ICF values. This probably indicates a high incidence of these types of diseases in the region, possibly due to the poor socio-economic and sanitary conditions of this people. The medicinal plants that are widely used by the local people or used as a remedy for a specific aliment have higher FL values (Carissa spinarum, Clausena anisata, Acokanthera schimperi, Calpurnia aurea, Ficus thonningii, and Cyphostemma junceum) than those that are less popular or used to treat more than one type of aliments (Plumbago zeylanicum, Dorstenia barnimiana).     

Flies as a source of enteric pathogens in a rural village in Thailand

The village of Ban Pong in northeastern Thailand was studied from January through December 1981 to determine the importance of flies as a source of enteric pathogens. The number of flies (predominantly Musca domestica) increased in kitchens and animal pens in the hot dry spring, when the incidence of diarrhea was highest in the village. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., non-O1 Vibrio cholerae, and Vibrio fluvalis were isolated from fly pools in yards (69%), animal pens (38%), bathrooms (35%), and kitchens (8%). Enterotoxigenic E. coli was isolated from one fly pool in May and from another in June, when the incidence of such infections was highest in the village. Flies often carry and presumably disseminate enteric pathogens in rural Thailand.     

Factors affecting acceptability of long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community

This study was carried out in 4 adjacent villages in Lower Eghypt with a combined population of 24,000. A team of social workers and physicians worked together to introduce the injectable contraceptive depomedroxyprogesterone acetate as a post-partum long-acting contraceptive to the community leaders and the villagers at several meetings and individual home visits. Post-partum women who agreed to use the drug were defined as acceptors (591) and those who did not were defined as rejectors (715). The incidence of polygamy was higher among the rejectors, and rejectors' husbands had more children from their other wives. Acceptors had more previous pregnancies and children of both sexes than rejectors. The interval between the last 2 pregnancies was shorter among the rejectors. A greater % of acceptors had previously used another contraceptive. The commonest reasons for rejection were desire for further pregnancy (69%), health problems (11%), and desire for another method of contraception (8%). Religious factors figured in only 3% of cases.     

Twinning rates in a rural area of Bangladesh

In this study we investigate the incidence of twin births over a period of 16 years in a rural area of Bangladesh using data from the Demographic Surveillance System of the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research. Over the study period twinning rates fluctuated between 7.8 and 11.2 per 1000 live births. The twinning rate was strongly correlated with maternal age; the rate for mothers over 35 years of age was about 3 times higher than for mothers younger than 20 years. The variation in twinning rate with maternal age is due to the variation in dizygotic twinning; the rate of monozygotic twinning is almost constant for all ages. Twinning rates were higher in the treatment area than in the comparison area after controlling for maternal age and parity. The rates were lower for monozygotic twinning and higher for dizygotic twinning in the treatment area than in the comparison area. Seasonality was observed for both twins and singletons, but the peak for twinning precedes that for singleton births by more than a month.     

Management of myocardial infarction in a rural area

In an attempt to determine the most appropriate type of facility for the treatment of myocardial infarction in a rural community, the five-year experience of a practice serving 10,000 people is reviewed. This population is found to have a low incidence of myocardial infarction, a low death rate from the condition both in hospitalized patients and in the general population, and a low incidence of complications in the survivors. None of the deaths either in or out of hospital would likely have been prevented through the use of specialized facilities. It is concluded that no such facilities are necessary in this community and that other areas considering their acquisition should justify the need on the basis of their own experience and not on accounts in the literature.     

Factors affecting the choice of contraceptive method by a group of OEO patients.

A method of discriminant analysis is described whereby a combination of personal characteristics is established which would best predict whether a woman would choose oral or IUD contraception. The study hypothesized that, at the time of choice, a higher level of motivation is necessary to accept an IUD rather than oral contraception. Approximately 450 patients at a Planned Parenthood clinic in Columbia, South Carolina, were studied between October and December 1970. At the 1% level of significance, it was found that pill users are younger, have fewer children, and are more likely to have used the pill in the last 2 years, compared to IUD users. Income is higher for pill users at the 10% level of significance. Educational levels did not differ between the 2 groups. Other factors were significant at varying levels. It would be possible to establish a combination of variables which would predict the separation between the 2 groups of women. There are problems in this approach. 1 problem is that Planned Parenthood has alw ays stressed the voluntary aspect of contraceptive acceptance.     

Flies as a source of enteric pathogens in a rural village in Thailand.

The village of Ban Pong in northeastern Thailand was studied from January through December 1981 to determine the importance of flies as a source of enteric pathogens. The number of flies (predominantly Musca domestica) increased in kitchens and animal pens in the hot dry spring, when the incidence of diarrhea was highest in the village. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., non-O1 Vibrio cholerae, and Vibrio fluvalis were isolated from fly pools in yards (69%), animal pens (38%), bathrooms (35%), and kitchens (8%). Enterotoxigenic E. coli was isolated from one fly pool in May and from another in June, when the incidence of such infections was highest in the village. Flies often carry and presumably disseminate enteric pathogens in rural Thailand.