Biaxial testing of membrane biomaterials: testing equipment and procedures

A testing facility for measuring the biaxial mechanical properties of highly deformable membranes is described. Forces are applied, via strain-gauge force transducers, to four points on each side of an initially square 12 to 25 mm membrane sample to produce biaxial extensions of up to 80 percent of undeformed length. Strain is estimated from the displacement of markers bounding a 1 to 2 mm central square. The accuracy of stress and strain field measurements has been assessed by finite element analysis of a biaxially-loaded isotropic elastic membrane. Major advantages of the present system over those previously described in the literature are that 1) sample mounting procedures are simplified, 2) there is provision for independent adjustment of stress field uniformity and measurement of the applied point forces and 3) faster strain rates can be imposed on the relatively small samples tested.     

Gene SNPs and mutations in clinical genetic testing: haplotype-based testing and analysis

Haplotype-based analysis using high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers have gained increasing attention in evaluating candidate genes in various clinical situations. For example, haplotype information is useful for predicting the severity and prognosis of certain genetic disorders. The intragenic cis-interactions between the common polymorphisms and the pathogenic mutations of prion protein (PRNP) and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) genes greatly influence the phenotypes and the disease penetrance of hereditary Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and cystic fibrosis. Merits of haplotype study are more evident in the fine mapping of complex diseases and in identifying genetic variations that influence individual's response to drugs. Knowledge-based approaches and/or linkage analyses using SNP tagged haplotypes are effective tools in detecting genetic associations. For example, haplotype studies in the inflammatory bowel disease susceptibility loci revealed diverse cis and trans gene-gene interactions, which can affect the clinical outcomes. Although currently, we have very limited knowledge on haplotype-phenotypic characterizations of most genes, these examples demonstrate that increased understanding of the clinically relevant haplotypes will provide better results in the diagnosis and possibly in the treatment of both monogenic and polygenic diseases.     

DNA testing and domestic dogs

There are currently about 80 different DNA tests available for mutations that are associated with inherited disease in the domestic dog, and as the tools available with which to dissect the canine genome become increasingly sophisticated, this number can be expected to rise dramatically over the next few years. With unrelenting media pressure focused firmly on the health of the purebred domestic dog, veterinarians and dog breeders are turning increasingly to DNA tests to ensure the health of their dogs. It is ultimately the responsibility of the scientists who identify disease-associated genetic variants to make sensible choices about which discoveries are appropriate to develop into commercially available DNA tests for the lay dog breeder, who needs to balance the need to improve the genetic health of their breed with the need to maintain genetic diversity. This review discusses some of the factors that should be considered along the route from mutation discovery to DNA test and some representative examples of DNA tests currently available.     

遗传测试和遗传咨询

遗传物质的突变,包括基因突变或染色体畸变,是遗传病发生的根源,也是区别于其他疾病的基本特点。大力开展遗传测试及筛查,及时检出遗传病患者及致病基因携带者,是提高人口素质,促进家庭幸福、社会繁荣、国家昌盛的唯一可行的方法。遗传咨询对于检出遗传病患者及致病基因携带者,并进行有效、可行的婚姻指导、生育指导,以减少或防止遗传病患儿的发生和发病,发挥着相当重要的作用。在产前诊断中涉及疾病胎儿处理的道德选择问题上,遵循四项基本准则：第一,尊重夫妇双方的选择;第二,对个人和家庭不产生伤害;第三,产前诊断的结果可靠;第四,产前诊断和遗传咨询的自愿性。这些准则无疑在世界各国有着共同性。     

Penalized likelihood and multiple testing

The classical multiple testing model remains an important practical area of statistics with new approaches still being developed. In this paper we develop a new multiple testing procedure inspired by a method sometimes used in a problem with a different focus. Namely, the inference after model selection problem. We note that solutions to that problem are often accomplished by making use of a penalized likelihood function. A classic example is the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) method. In this paper we construct a generalized BIC method and evaluate its properties as a multiple testing procedure. The procedure is applicable to a wide variety of statistical models including regression, contrasts, treatment versus control, change point, and others. Numerical work indicates that, in particular, for sparse models the new generalized BIC would be preferred over existing multiple testing procedures.     

Urease testing and yeast taxonomy

When urease production was assayed by the hydrolysis of [14C]urea, all basidiomycetous yeasts tested, including the Cryptococcus vishniacii complex (previously reported urease negative), produced significant amounts of 14CO2. The Schizosaccharomycetaceae were the only urease-positive ascomycetous yeasts tested. Yarrowia lipolytica was urease negative. The stoichiometry of [14C]urea hydrolysis paralleled by Roberts' rapid urea hydrolysis (RUH) test indicated that causes of anomalous results in conventional urease testing include acidification and alkalinization of the test medium by products of endogenous metabolism and autolysis rather than urease activity. Anomalous results also occurred when cells were grown on media containing the chelating agent ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) prior to RUH. The addition of EDTA to a complex natural medium inhibited urease production in all yeasts reportedly growing at 35 degrees C (and all other yeasts tested), except Filobasidiella (Cr.) neoformans var. neoformans (NIH 12). The RUH test could differentiate at the varietal level: Fil. (Cr.) neoformans var. neoformans was about 10 times more resistant to EDTA in media used for the growth of cells prior to RUH testing than was Fil. neoformans var. bacillispora (Cr. neoformans var. gattii) (NIH 191). Urease production by Fil. neoformans var. bacillispora was specifically restored to half maximal activity by the addition of 22 microM Ni+2 (as NiCl2) to a growth medium containing 0.100 mM EDTA.     

Patent pools and diagnostic testing

There is increasing concern that overlapping patents in the field of genetics will create a costly and legally complex situation known as a patent thicket, which, along with the associated issues of accumulating royalty payments, can act as a disincentive for innovation. One potential means of preventing this is for the patent holders to enter into a so-called patent pool, such as those established in the electronics and telecommunications industries. Precedents for these also exist in the field of genetics, notably with the patents pertaining to the SARS genome. In this review, we initially address the patent pool concept in general and its application in genetics. Following this, we will explore patent pools in the diagnostic field in more detail, and examine some existing and novel examples of patent pools in genetics.