短指(趾)症及指(趾)骨发育的分子调控机制

短指(趾)症(brachydactyly, BD)是一类指(趾)骨或掌(跖)骨的异常缩短或缺失而造成的手/足畸形病变。从临床表型上短指(趾)症可以分为单纯型短指(趾)症以及包含短指(趾)症状的综合征,其中单纯型短指(趾)症又分为5种类型:BDA、BDB、BDC、BDD和BDE,而每一类型又分为不同的亚型。作为一类重要的分子疾病家族,随着对每种短指(趾)症的深入研究,大多数单纯型短指(趾)症和部分综合征的致病基因及其分子机制逐渐被发现。虽然短指(趾)症在表型上高度多样化,但在分子水平上这些致病基因主要影响Hedgehog、NOTCH、WNT和BMP等信号传导通路。这些信号传导通路组成了一个复杂的信号调控网络,在指(趾)骨及关节的不同发育阶段发挥着不同的作用,其中BMP信号传导通路扮演着至为关键的角色。本文在目前对短指(趾)症的分类基础上,详细综述了短指(趾)症相关致病基因及所影响的信号通路等方面的最新进展,旨在探讨指(趾)骨形成的分子机制,以期为短指(趾)症的临床诊断以及人类骨骼发育的分子调控机制研究提供参考。     

指（趾）骨异常及其相关基因研究进展

指(趾)骨异常是人群中较为常见的一种遗传缺陷,一般为常染色体显性遗传,也有少数以常染色体隐性遗传的方式传递,包括四肢大范围的缺失缺陷,也包括细微的指(趾)数目、长度、解剖形态结构的变化,是由于遗传进化过程中的变异或发育过程中的不良因素(如异常子宫内环境)所致.指(趾)骨异常可以分为多指(趾)并指(趾)症(Synpolydactyly,SPD)、手足裂畸形(split-hand/split-foot malformation,SHFM)和短指(趾)(Brachydactyly,BD).本文综述了指(趾)骨异常的分类及其遗传特点,总结了指(趾)骨异常畸形相关基因的研究进展.     

染色体10q24.31片段重复导致先天性缺指/缺趾畸形的一个家系致病机理分析

先天性缺指/缺趾畸形表现为手足指/趾骨发育不全等症状,会严重影响患者生活中的精细操作及心理健康。本研究对一个患有先天性缺指/缺趾畸形家系进行了基因变异检测,分析总结了该疾病分型与基因变异之间的关联关系,并探讨了对此类疾病患者开展遗传咨询及基因诊断的策略。首先,采用临床体检及四肢X线检查的方式,对患者表型进行分析。然后,应用D10S1709、D10S192、D10S597、D10S1693和D10S587等5个位点对外周血DNA进行了单倍型分析,并利用Array-CGH检测基因重复片段。最后,通过基于家系调查和基因分析探讨先天性手足裂畸形的致病原因。研究结果显示,先证者为典型的先天性手足裂畸形,表现为双侧食、中指缺失,拇指短,左手无名指畸形与缺失中指的皮肤相连成蹼状;双足正中裂开至足中部,第2和3趾缺失,第4和5趾融合。家系中其他患者表型变异较大。其外周血基因单倍型分析表现为染色体10q24.31-10q24.32区域有一个至少610 kb的重复,Array-CGH分析结果为10q24.31(102 832 650～103 511 083)×3。对先证者及其弟弟和父母进行单倍型分析,确认该家系的致病基因为10q24.31-10q24.32基因重复,单倍型165-251-289-219-102为该病的等位基因。研究结果提示,该家系缺指/缺趾畸形乃由于染色体10q24.31 (102 832650～103511083)×3引起,其单倍型165-251-289-219-102可作为检测10q24.31-10q24.32等位基因的疾病标志物。     

产前超声诊断及漏诊胎儿肢体畸形分析

目的:探讨胎儿肢体畸形超声特征及诊断价值。方法:采用连续顺序追踪法对66342例妊娠12-40周孕妇行胎儿四肢畸形筛查。将产前超声诊断结果与引产或产后结果进行对比分析。结果:发生肢体畸形271例,发生率为0.41%(271/66342),包括四肢短小5例,桡骨发育不全1例,缺肢畸形5例,足内翻17例,手掌畸形3例,指趾畸形222例及骨骼多发畸形18例。其中产前诊断胎儿肢体畸形49例;漏诊222例,包括:足内翻3例、指趾畸形218例、多发骨骼畸形1例。胎儿肢体畸形的出现率和产前检出率分别为:四肢短小1.84%(5/271)、100%(5/5);桡骨发育不全0.36%(1/271)、100%(1/1);缺肢畸形1.84%(5/271)、100%(5/5);足内翻6.27%(17/271)、82.35%(14/17);手掌畸形1.10%(3/271)、100%(3/3);指趾畸形81.91%(222/217)、1.8%(4/222);多发骨骼畸形6.64%(18/271)、94.44%(17/18)。结论:超声对胎儿手掌、脚掌部位以上畸形的检出率较高。指趾畸形出现率最高,但检出率最低。     

LRP4与人类罕见遗传病

低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白4(low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4,LRP4)在2010年被报道确认为CLS型并指综合征(Cenani-Lenz syndactyly syndrome)的致病基因,相继有文献报道了LRP4的突变会造成17型先天性肌无力症(myasthenic syndrome,congenital 17)和二型硬化性骨病(sclerosteosis 2)。LRP4参与调节经典WNT信号通路和MAPK/JNK信号通路,在神经肌肉接头中与MUSK/AGRIN组成复合物,调节突触后转化。LRP4参与肢端、神经肌肉接头、肾脏、乳腺和牙齿的发育形成,参与骨代谢进程。现将重点介绍LRP4在人类中所引起的3种单基因疾病和从遗传发育角度综述目前关于LRP4的研究进展,对未来深入研究LRP4在脊椎动物早期发育中的功能机制提供一定的参考。     

多趾并指(趾)畸形家系调查分析

并指(趾)畸形为手指(趾)并连一起的畸形,是人类中手部较为常见的遗传性疾病。据统计,约每1000-3000新生儿中即有一例。根据指(趾)与指(趾)之间的部分或全部皮肤性或骨性的联结及融合情况,至少可分为5种类型。可伴有或不伴有并趾。每一家系的并指类型基本相同。多指(趾),又称额外指(趾),为手足部常见骨病,患者在十指之外多生一至二指(趾)。根据Mckusick氏的研究,把多指     

一个短指(趾)少指(趾)节畸形家系的调查

本文报道了一短指(趾)少指(趾)节畸形苗族家系的调查结果。该家系中患者双手、双足第一指(趾)近节指(趾)骨变短粗,第二、三、四、五指(趾)中节指(趾)骨缺如,属于遗传性短指(趾)畸形的BellA-1型。患者手纹与贵州正常苗族人有较大差异。该家系父系正常,母系4代共调查75人,发现患者22人(男13人,女9人)。系谱分析表明,该畸形属常染色体显性遗传。     

多指（趾）并指（趾）畸形家系分析

多指（趾）和并指（趾）畸形症状,在人类中 是较为常见的遗传性疾病,但在人群中不同的 个体往往表现出遗传性状有很大差异。根据 Mckusick氏的研究,把多指（趾）畸形按额外指 （趾）赘生的部位分,大致可归纳为挠侧、胫侧、拇 指、食指等4种不同类型。另外对并指（趾）畸形, 根据指（趾）与指（趾）之间的部分或全部皮肤性 或骨性的联结及融合情况可分为5种类型^[2]     

产前超声诊断及漏诊胎儿肢体畸形分析

目的：探讨胎儿肢体畸形超声特征及诊断价值。方法：采用连续顺序追踪法对66342 例妊娠12-40 周孕妇行胎儿四肢畸形筛查。将产前超声诊断结果与引产或产后结果进行对比分析。结果：发生肢体畸形271 例,发生率为0.41 %（271/66342）,包括四肢短小5 例,桡骨发育不全1 例,缺肢畸形5 例,足内翻17 例,手掌畸形3 例,指趾畸形222 例及骨骼多发畸形18 例。其中产前诊断胎儿肢体畸形49 例;漏诊222 例,包括：足内翻3 例、指趾畸形218 例、多发骨骼畸形1 例。胎儿肢体畸形的出现率和产前检出率分别为：四肢短小1.84 %（5/271）、100 %（5/5）;桡骨发育不全0.36 %（1/271）、100 %（1/1）;缺肢畸形1.84 %（5/271）、100 %（5/5）;足内翻6.27 %（17/271）、82.35 %（14/17）;手掌畸形1.10 %（3/271）、100 %（3/3）;指趾畸形81.91 %（222/217）、1. 8%（4/222）;多发骨骼畸形6.64 %（18/271）、94.44 %（17/18）。结论：超声对胎儿手掌、脚掌部位以上畸形的检出率较高。指趾畸形出现率最高,但检出率最低。     

一罕见的短指少指（趾）节病的家系

短指少指（趾）节病是短指畸形的一个类 型,是一种遗传病。1905年Farabee首先报告^[1] 并命名为Brachydactylia; 1965年许氏报告一家 族短指多指节病(brachyhyperphalangia)^[2]。本 文报告一罕见的以双手、双足第二节指（趾）骨 缺失为特征的短指（趾）畸形的家系,共,代30 人。据Yanuse材料可靠性分级¹⁾,本文属I级 和IV 级可靠性者各15人（图1)0     

Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)

Brachydactyly ("short digits") is a general term that refers to disproportionately short fingers and toes, and forms part of the group of limb malformations characterized by bone dysostosis. The various types of isolated brachydactyly are rare, except for types A3 and D. Brachydactyly can occur either as an isolated malformation or as a part of a complex malformation syndrome. To date, many different forms of brachydactyly have been identified. Some forms also result in short stature. In isolated brachydactyly, subtle changes elsewhere may be present. Brachydactyly may also be accompanied by other hand malformations, such as syndactyly, polydactyly, reduction defects, or symphalangism. For the majority of isolated brachydactylies and some syndromic forms of brachydactyly, the causative gene defect has been identified. In isolated brachydactyly, the inheritance is mostly autosomal dominant with variable expressivity and penetrtance. Diagnosis is clinical, anthropometric and radiological. Prenatal diagnosis is usually not indicated for isolated forms of brachydactyly, but may be appropriate in syndromic forms. Molecular studies of chorionic villus samples at 11 weeks of gestation and by amniocentesis after the 14^th week of gestation can provide antenatal diagnosis if the causative mutation in the family is known. The nature of genetic counseling depends both on the pattern of inheritance of the type of brachydactyly present in the family and on the presence or absence of accompanying symptoms. There is no specific management or treatment that is applicable to all forms of brachydactyly. Plastic surgery is only indicated if the brachydactyly affects hand function or for cosmetic reasons, but is typically not needed. Physical therapy and ergotherapy may ameliorate hand function. Prognosis for the brachydactylies is strongly dependent on the nature of the brachydactyly, and may vary from excellent to severely influencing hand function. If brachydactyly forms part of a syndromic entity, prognosis often depends on the nature of the associated anomalies.     

A GDF5 Point Mutation Strikes Twice - Causing BDA1 and SYNS2

Growth and Differentiation Factor 5 (GDF5) is a secreted growth factor that belongs to the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) family and plays a pivotal role during limb development. GDF5 is a susceptibility gene for osteoarthritis (OA) and mutations in GDF5 are associated with a wide variety of skeletal malformations ranging from complex syndromes such as acromesomelic chondrodysplasias to isolated forms of brachydactylies or multiple synostoses syndrome 2 (SYNS2). Here, we report on a family with an autosomal dominant inherited combination of SYNS2 and additional brachydactyly type A1 (BDA1) caused by a single point mutation in GDF5 (p.W414R). Functional studies, including chondrogenesis assays with primary mesenchymal cells, luciferase reporter gene assays and Surface Plasmon Resonance analysis, of the GDF5^W414R variant in comparison to other GDF5 mutations associated with isolated BDA1 (p.R399C) or SYNS2 (p.E491K) revealed a dual pathomechanism characterized by a gain- and loss-of-function at the same time. On the one hand insensitivity to the main GDF5 antagonist NOGGIN (NOG) leads to a GDF5 gain of function and subsequent SYNS2 phenotype. Whereas on the other hand, a reduced signaling activity, specifically via the BMP receptor type IA (BMPR1A), is likely responsible for the BDA1 phenotype. These results demonstrate that one mutation in the overlapping interface of antagonist and receptor binding site in GDF5 can lead to a GDF5 variant with pathophysiological relevance for both, BDA1 and SYNS2 development. Consequently, our study assembles another part of the molecular puzzle of how loss and gain of function mutations in GDF5 affect bone development in hands and feet resulting in specific types of brachydactyly and SYNS2. These novel insights into the biology of GDF5 might also provide further clues on the pathophysiology of OA.     

Congenital forms of brachydactyly and dermatoglyphics

Relative length and ridge count in dermatoglyphs of patients with various forms of brachydactyly were compared to those of the corresponding controls. In most cases of brachydactyly, fingers shortening was associated with the decreased ridge count, and only in two patients with brachydactyly D this relationship wasn't detected. It appears that brachydactyly may be due either to the abnormal positional information or disturbed function of certain growth factors responsible for the expression of inborn growth potential.     

Noninvasive estimation of bone mass in ancient vertebrae

Histomorphometry is useful in the assessment of trabecular bone mass (TBM), and thus, in the estimation of the prevalence and intensity of osteopenia in ancient population groups. However, it is a destructive method. It is therefore necessary to explore the accuracy of nondestructive approaches, such as radiography, bone mineral density (BMD) assessed by double-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), bone density (BD), or optical density (OD) in the diagnosis of osteopenia. We selected 51 vertebrae out of a total sample composed of 333 T12, L1, and L2 vertebrae belonging to adult pre-Hispanic inhabitants from El Hierro. These vertebrae underwent histomorphometrical analysis, a fine-grained film radiography with assessment of trabecular pattern following standard methods, OD, DEXA-assessed BMD, and BD. The presence of biconcave vertebrae and wedge-shaped vertebrae was also assessed by measuring anterior height (a), posterior height (p), and height at the middle point of the vertebral body (m), and further calculating the indices 2m/(a + p) ("spine score") and a/p. Significant correlations were observed between TBM and BMD (r=0.43), TBM and BD (r=0.49), TBM and OD (r=0.52), BMD and OD (r=0.51), and BMD and BD (r=0.36), but not between TBM and the indices 2m/(a + p) and a/p. In the stepwise multiple correlation analysis between TBM and BMD, BD, and OD, OD entered into first place and BD into second place, whereas BMD became displaced; the multiple correlation coefficient was 0.63, with a standard error of 3.78. A BMD greater than 0.60 g/cm2, or a bone density greater than 0.60 g/cm3, excluded osteopenia (TBM <15%) with a specificity greater than 90%, whereas a BMD value less than 0.35 g/cm2, a BD less than 0.35 g/cm3, or optical density >1.6 excluded a normal bone mass (TBM >20%) with a specificity greater than 90%. Based on radiographic criteria on the total sample, we also conclude that the overall prevalence of vertebral fractures in the adult pre-Hispanic population of El Hierro of any age is 7.5%.     

The neurobiology of adaptation to seasons: Relevance and correlations in bipolar disorders

ABSTRACT

Bipolar disorders (BDs) are severe and common psychiatric disorders. BD pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and relapses are associated with numerous circadian rhythm abnormalities. In addition, infradian fluctuations of mood, social activity, weight and sleep patterns are very frequent in BD. Disease course with a seasonal pattern (SP) occurs in approximately 25% of depressive and 15% of manic episodes, which is coupled to a more severe disease symptomatology. The pathophysiological mechanisms of seasonal effects in BD await clarification, with likely important clinical consequences. This review aims at synthesizing available data regarding the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of seasonality in BD patients, with implications for future research directions in the study of seasonality in BD. Three factors are suggested to play significant roles in BD with SP, namely the suprachiasmatic nuclei, as well as the melatonergic and photoperiodism systems. It is proposed that BD with SP may be considered as a complex disorder resulting from the interaction of clock gene vulnerabilities and biological clock neuroplasticity, with environmental factors, such as the response to light. Light seems to play a key role in BD with SP, mainly due to two seasonal signaling pathways: a light to cortex serotonin transporter pathway, as well as a pathway connecting light to melatonin synthesis. This provides a theoretical framework for BD with SP, including for future research and clinical management. The review proposes that future research should explore markers of seasonality in BD, such as plasma melatonin, sleep–wake rhythms (with actigraphy) and genetic or epigenetic variants within the melatonin synthesis pathway. The role of light in driving BD with SP is an active area of research. Seasonality may also be intimately linked to wider aspects of BD, including via interactions with the gut microbiome, the gut–liver axis, cholesterol regulation, aspects of metabolic syndrome, vitamin D, decreased longevity, suicide risk and medication treatment targets. Further research on the role of seasonality in BD is likely to clarify the etiology, course and treatment of BD more widely.     

RANKL stimulates inducible nitric-oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide production in developing osteoclasts. An autocrine negative feedback mechanism triggered by RANKL-induced interferon-beta via NF-kappaB that restrains osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption

Nitric oxide (NO) is a multifunctional signaling molecule and a key vasculoprotective and potential osteoprotective factor. NO regulates normal bone remodeling and pathological bone loss in part through affecting the recruitment, formation, and activity of bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Using murine RAW 264.7 and primary bone marrow cells or osteoclasts formed from them by receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) differentiation, we found that inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and NO generation were stimulated by interferon (IFN)-gamma or lipopolysaccharide, but not by interleukin-1 or tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Surprisingly, iNOS expression and NO release were also triggered by RANKL. This response was time- and dose-dependent, required NF-kappaB activation and new protein synthesis, and was specifically blocked by the RANKL decoy receptor osteoprotegerin. Preventing RANKL-induced NO (via iNOS-selective inhibition or use of marrow cells from iNOS-/- mice) increased osteoclast formation and bone pit resorption, indicating that such NO normally restrains RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis. Additional studies suggested that RANKL-induced NO inhibition of osteoclast formation does not occur via NO activation of a cGMP pathway. Because IFN-beta is also a RANKL-induced autocrine negative feedback inhibitor that limits osteoclastogenesis, we investigated whether IFN-beta is involved in this novel RANKL/iNOS/NO autoregulatory pathway. IFN-beta was induced by RANKL and stimulated iNOS expression and NO release, and a neutralizing antibody to IFN-beta inhibited iNOS/NO elevation in response to RANKL, thereby enhancing osteoclast formation. Thus, RANKL-induced IFN-beta triggers iNOS/NO as an important negative feedback signal during osteoclastogenesis. Specifically targeting this novel autoregulatory pathway may provide new therapeutic approaches to combat various osteolytic bone diseases.     

Oxidases and oxygenases in regulation of neutrophil redox pathways in Behçet’s disease patients

This study aimed to determine plasma and neutrophil oxidase activities that may contribute to vascular inflammation in Behçet’s disease (BD) patients. Cyclooxygenase (COX), NADPH oxidase and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was determined in neutrophils isolated from BD patients and healthy controls. Functional assay of NADPH oxidase was significantly increased in BD patients, both at basal conditions and in response to fMLP stimulation. There was a significant increase in plasma MPO activity in the disease group as compared to controls. Total COX activity was significantly increased in BD neutrophils. The increase in total COX activity was accompanied with enhanced activity of COX-2, differentiated by using the COX-1 isoform-specific inhibitor SC-560. Neutrophil nitrate/nitrite levels showed no significant difference in BD; however, plasma nitrate/nitrite contents in BD patients were significantly greater compared to controls. In conclusion, increased plasma MPO, neutrophil NADPH and COX activities may contribute to intravascular inflammation documented in BD patients.     

Oxidases and oxygenases in regulation of neutrophil redox pathways in Behçet's disease patients

This study aimed to determine plasma and neutrophil oxidase activities that may contribute to vascular inflammation in Beh?et's disease (BD) patients. Cyclooxygenase (COX), NADPH oxidase and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was determined in neutrophils isolated from BD patients and healthy controls. Functional assay of NADPH oxidase was significantly increased in BD patients, both at basal conditions and in response to fMLP stimulation. There was a significant increase in plasma MPO activity in the disease group as compared to controls. Total COX activity was significantly increased in BD neutrophils. The increase in total COX activity was accompanied with enhanced activity of COX-2, differentiated by using the COX-1 isoform-specific inhibitor SC-560. Neutrophil nitrate/nitrite levels showed no significant difference in BD; however, plasma nitrate/nitrite contents in BD patients were significantly greater compared to controls. In conclusion, increased plasma MPO, neutrophil NADPH and COX activities may contribute to intravascular inflammation documented in BD patients.