Deciphering archaeological palimpsests with bone micro-fragments from the Lower Magdalenian of El Mirón cave (Cantabria,Spain)

Abstract

Modern excavation techniques aim accurately to recover extant archaeological data. Usually bone micro-fragments are gathered as a result, however, during archaeological analysis these remains are often set apart as indeterminate bones and generally do not contribute to the interpretation of the deposits. How to decipher archaeological palimpsests using these small bone fragments is the aim of this paper. El Mirón Cave, located in northern Iberia, contains a very rich Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian deposit (17–15 uncal ka BP) with high densities of faunal remains and artefacts. Here, we present zooarchaeological, taphonomic and spatial distribution analyses of macromammal finds, including those small bone fragments, accumulated during a series of intensive and repeated human occupations found in the outer vestibule excavation area. Our results show that a broad spectrum of activities was performed there, including meat, marrow and grease processing and waste abandonment. We propose that bone micro-fragments must be considered when addressing human subsistence reconstructions from animal remains, as they represent the leftovers of the chaîne opératoire of animal carcass exploitation. The archaeological implications of their inclusion are extremely valuable, especially when deciphering palimpsests. A multidisciplinary approach to study these small animal remains provides information that otherwise would be missed.     

Neanderthal and carnivore activities at Llonin Cave,Asturias, northern Iberian Peninsula: Faunal study of Mousterian levels (MIS 3)

This paper presents a study of the macromammalian fauna recovered from Mousterian levels of Llonin Cave. The sample is highly heterogeneous and comprises six species of ungulates, including Rupicapra pyrenaica, Capra pyrenaica, and Cervus elaphus, and seven species of carnivores, predominantly Ursus spelaeus, Crocuta spelaea, Canis/Cuon and Panthera pardus. The archaeozoological and taphonomic study of the remains shows preferential use of basal levels of the cave as a den for hyenas and leopards. Neanderthals were also present during this phase and they would have acted mainly on deer and some caprines, while the action of hyenas would mainly have been linked to scavenging of elements left by humans and the introduction of bear remains. Leopards would have transported caprines in order to consume them. The study of several coprolites confirms that hyenas and leopards were the main occupants of the cave. The information from the animals processed by humans together with other archaeological evidence and the intervention of various carnivores in these basal levels enables us to characterise a palimpsest of occupations that would have been short and sporadic in the case of humans.     

Taphonomic signature of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) on bone prey remains

Abstract

The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is one of the most important birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. This raptor is used to building large nests in high cliffs to which they return for several breeding years accumulating important amounts of their prey skeletal remains. This makes the golden eagle one of the major predators able to accumulate faunal remains in archaeological sites. Despite this fact, the taphonomic signature of golden eagles has not been properly characterized. Here we present the analysis of ingested and non-ingested faunal remains predated and accumulated by this raptor in two different nesting areas from the Iberian Peninsula. Results show how the faunal taxonomic record may vary depending on the ecological zone. Leporids and terrestrial carnivores are the best represented. The observed anatomical representation, breakage and bone surface modification patterns are discussed for different taxa. The taphonomic pattern varies depending on the type of prey and the origin of skeletal materials (non-ingested vs. pellets). Finally, after comparing our results with marks left by other predators, several characteristic features are noted to recognise golden eagles as agents of animal bones accumulations in the fossil record.     

Carcass transport decisions in Homo antecessor subsistence strategies

Pleistocene foragers used several prey acquisition and processing strategies. These strategies and their associated decisions are elucidated by taphonomic studies that cover animal transport, modifications by different agents and archaeological remains. Interpretative models of archaeological sites are by necessity based on natural and experimental observations. Ethno-archaeological data shows that several factors influenced decisions about carcass transport from the kill site to the home site. These factors often have little archaeological visibility. Díez et al. (1999) has previously interpreted the general characteristics of the macro-mammal remains from Gran Dolina Level TD6-2 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain) as the result of anthropic accumulation, in which the anatomical profiles appeared to be the result of selective transport based on the animals’ weight. Recent taphonomic analysis has shown that carcasses with different weights may be subject to similar transport strategies, suggesting that other factors influenced these choices. The hominins that occupied TD6-2 (the TD6-2 hominin group), at least sometimes, transported large carcasses to the cave in their entirety, implying participation by groups of individuals in hunting parties. These individuals delayed their consumption of large amounts of food, instead moving it to Gran Dolina, where it was shared with other group members. These decisions are evidence of social cooperation and food sharing amongst early European hominins.     

Étude des macro-, méso- et micro-charbons du site épigravettien de Mezhyrich (Ukraine) : données taphonomiques et anthracologiques

This paper is the state of the art of charcoal signal studies (macro-, meso- and micro-charcoal) that have been carried out at the Epigravettian settlement of Mezhyrich. This work took part of the French ANR project “Mammouths”. Charcoal signals have been found in both natural and archaeological (pits and activity areas) deposits that have been sampled during the 2007–2008 archaeological excavations. This study aims at discussing the natural versus anthropic causes of those charcoal signals. Microscopic charcoal have been observed and quantified from loess sediments; they are probably the consequence of regional fire regimes. Charcoal signals found in archaeological layers would be mainly caused by human activities. The major charcoal signal is observed within the microscopic part of the archaeological sediments and thereby underlines the intensity of taphonomic processes. The identification of wood charcoal shows that birch and willow were located along the riverbanks, which provides further discussion of prehistoric fuel management in Pleniglacial context.     

Taphonomic analysis of the early Pleistocene (2.4 Ma) faunal assemblage from A.L. 894 (Hadar, Ethiopia)

The A.L. 894 site (Hadar, Ethiopia) is, together with OGS 7 (Gona, Ethiopia), one of the oldest archaeological sites documenting a spatial association of stone tools and bones retrieved from an in situ excavation. In contrast with OGS 7, the better preservation of the bone assemblage at A.L. 894 allows the identification of taphonomic processes of bone breakage, thanks to abundant green bone fractures. The presence of tooth marks and the lack of hominin-produced bone modifications together argue against hominins as the responsible agents for bone accumulation and modification. This taphonomic study of A.L. 894 shows lack of evidence for functional associations between stone tools and bones, a pattern documented in several other early Pleistocene sites. Such a pattern underscores the complex phenomena involved in site formation processes, especially in the earliest archaeological assemblages     

Unraveling hominin behavior at another anthropogenic site from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania): new archaeological and taphonomic research at BK, Upper Bed II

New archaeological excavations and research at BK, Upper Bed II (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) have yielded a rich and unbiased collection of fossil bones. These new excavations show that BK is a stratified deposit formed in a riverine setting close to an alluvial plain. The present taphonomic study reveals the second-largest collection of hominin-modified bones from Olduvai, with abundant cut marks found on most of the anatomical areas preserved. Meat and marrow exploitation is reconstructed using the taphonomic signatures left on the bones by hominins. Highly cut-marked long limb shafts, especially those of upper limb bones, suggest that hominins at BK were actively engaged in acquiring small and middle-sized animals using strategies other than passive scavenging. The exploitation of large-sized game (Pelorovis) by Lower Pleistocene hominins, as suggested by previous researchers, is supported by the present study.     

Turning a rock shelter into a home. Neanderthal use of space in Abric Romaní levels M and O

Abstract

Bone refits can be a useful tool to understand the archaeological assemblages. From a taphonomic point of view, they have been used to reinforce some aspects related to the formation processes of the sites. However, they can be used to check some palaeoeconomic and social interpretations of the assemblages as well, providing accurate temporal relationships between the objects. For all these reasons, bone refits are relevant to study the settlement dynamics and the intra-site behaviour of past human groups. The main aim of this work is to present the faunal refits data obtained from two different archaeological assemblages (M and O) of the Abric Romaní site (Capellades, Spain), dated around 55 ka. The study also includes taxonomic, anatomical, taphonomic and spatial analyses. The spatio-temporal proxy allows us to interpret the activities carried out by the Neanderthal groups in different areas during different moments. From here, it is possible to interpret site structure, using ethnoarchaeological data as a referent. The comparison between these two archaeological layers, and between them and other assemblages, both from Abric Romaní and from other sites, can contribute significantly to the knowledge of the intra-site behaviour and settlement patterns at the end of the Middle Palaeolithic.     

The “Bear” Essentials: Actualistic Research on Ursus arctos arctos in the Spanish Pyrenees and Its Implications for Paleontology and Archaeology

Neotaphonomic studies of large carnivores are used to create models in order to explain the formation of terrestrial vertebrate fossil faunas. The research reported here adds to the growing body of knowledge on the taphonomic consequences of large carnivore behavior in temperate habitats and has important implications for paleontology and archaeology. Using photo- and videotrap data, we were able to describe the consumption of 17 ungulate carcasses by wild brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) ranging the Spanish Pyrenees. Further, we analyzed the taphonomic impact of these feeding bouts on the bones recovered from those carcasses. The general sequence of consumption that we charted starts with separation of a carcass’s trunk; viscera are generally eaten first, followed by musculature of the humerus and femur. Long limb bones are not broken open for marrow extraction. Bears did not transport carcasses or carcass parts from points of feeding and did not disperse bones appreciably (if at all) from their anatomical positions. The general pattern of damage that resulted from bear feeding includes fracturing, peeling, crenulation, tooth pitting and scoring of axial and girdle elements and furrowing of the upper long limb bones. As predicted from observational data, the taphonomic consequences of bear feeding resemble those of other non-durophagus carnivores, such as felids, and are distinct from those of durophagus carnivores, such as hyenids. Our results have paleontological and archaeological relevance. Specifically, they may prove useful in building analogical models for interpreting the formation of fossil faunas for which bears are suspected bone accumulators and/or modifiers. More generally, our comparative statistical analyses draw precise quantitative distinctions between bone damage patterns imparted respectively by durophagus (modelled here primarily by spotted hyenas [Crocuta crocuta] and wolves [Canis lupus]) and non-durophagus (modelled here by brown bears and lions [Panthera leo]) carnivorans.     

Comparing rates of recrystallisation and the potential for preservation of biomolecules from the distribution of trace elements in fossil bones

Preservation of intact macromolecules and geochemical signals in fossil bones is mainly controlled by the extent of post-mortem interaction between bones and sediment pore waters. Trace elements such as lanthanum are added to bone post-mortem from pore waters, and where uptake occurs via a simple process of diffusion and adsorption, the elemental distribution can be used to assess the relative extent of bone-pore water interaction and rate of recrystallisation. Distribution profiles can be parameterised effectively using simple exponential equations, and the extent of bone–water interaction compared within and between sites. In this study, the distribution of lanthanum within bone was determined by laser ablation ICP–MS in 60 archaeological and fossil bones from Pleistocene and Cretaceous sites. The rates of recrystallisation and potential for preservation of intact biogeochemical signals vary significantly within and between sites. Elemental profiles within fossil bones hold promise as a screening technique to prospect for intact biomolecules and as a taphonomic tool.     

浅议古人类活动遗址的动物埋藏学研究方法

随着学科的发展,有关古人类活动遗址的研究手段逐渐多样化,学者们从不同研究视角分别揭示了早期人类对遗址的利用行为。近年来,作为古人类行为研究的重要分支,动物埋藏研究在阐释遗址形成过程及其背后的影响因素方面起到了重要作用。本文简要梳理了对保存有动物遗存的古人类活动遗址进行动物埋藏研究的主要方法和思路,同时,文章介绍了部分动物埋藏的典型模型与经典案例,以此对动物埋藏研究中存在的缺陷与可能的解决方式进行探讨。此外,作者对动物埋藏研究的方法演进进行了简单回顾,为解决遗址中出现的多个埋藏因素相互影响而导致的混乱及重叠现象提供了可供参考的研究思路;在此基础上,结合中国古人类活动遗址的相关研究进展,本文也对中国考古遗址相关研究的思路和方向提出了建议。     

Experimental approaches to understanding variation in grain size in Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and its relevance for interpreting archaeobotanical assemblages

The dimensions of archaeobotanical grains identified as Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) vary greatly in size. This is illustrated by the remains from the archaeological site of Zanovskoe in eastern Ukraine (5th–1st centuries cal. b.c.). We carried out experimental work on broomcorn millet plants and grains, aiming at a comprehensive understanding of factors that may have contributed to variation in the grain size of broomcorn millet in archaeobotanical assemblages. We analyzed the dependence of grain size variation on selected environmental and taphonomic factors. Our results indicate that immaturity is more likely than environmental stress to account for small grain size in broomcorn millet plants. Depending on charring temperature and time, immature broomcorn millet grains can withstand charring and are potentially preserved in archaeological assemblages. Depending on maturity level, such grains vary in size and shape. These results are potentially important for accurate identification of archaeobotanical specimens.     

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Campylobacter spp. Prevalence and Concentration in Household Pets and Petting Zoo Animals for Use in Exposure Assessments

Animal contact is a potential transmission route for campylobacteriosis, and both domestic household pet and petting zoo exposures have been identified as potential sources of exposure. Research has typically focussed on the prevalence, concentration, and transmission of zoonoses from farm animals to humans, yet there are gaps in our understanding of these factors among animals in contact with the public who don’t live on or visit farms. This study aims to quantify, through a systematic review and meta-analysis, the prevalence and concentration of Campylobacter carriage in household pets and petting zoo animals. Four databases were accessed for the systematic review (PubMed, CAB direct, ProQuest, and Web of Science) for papers published in English from 1992–2012, and studies were included if they examined the animal population of interest, assessed prevalence or concentration with fecal, hair coat, oral, or urine exposure routes (although only articles that examined fecal routes were found), and if the research was based in Canada, USA, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Studies were reviewed for qualitative synthesis and meta-analysis by two reviewers, compiled into a database, and relevant studies were used to create a weighted mean prevalence value. There were insufficient data to run a meta-analysis of concentration values, a noted study limitation. The mean prevalence of Campylobacter in petting zoo animals is 6.5% based on 7 studies, and in household pets the mean is 24.7% based on 34 studies. Our estimated concentration values were: 7.65x10³cfu/g for petting zoo animals, and 2.9x10⁵cfu/g for household pets. These results indicate that Campylobacter prevalence and concentration are lower in petting zoo animals compared with household pets and that both of these animal sources have a lower prevalence compared with farm animals that do not come into contact with the public. There is a lack of studies on Campylobacter in petting zoos and/or fair animals in Canada and abroad. Within this literature, knowledge gaps were identified, and include: a lack of concentration data reported in the literature for Campylobacter spp. in animal feces, a distinction between ill and diarrheic pets in the reported studies, noted differences in shedding and concentrations for various subtypes of Campylobacter, and consistent reporting between studies.     

Taphonomic study of leporid remains accumulated by the Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti)

Distinguishing leporid bones accumulated by different agents such as diurnal raptors, owls, mammals and humans is essential to gain an understanding of not only human subsistence activities but also past ecology. This is particularly relevant in Iberian Palaeolithic sites where leporid remains usually constitute the most abundant taxon. Among diurnal raptors the Spanish Imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) has been one of the most important leporid predators throughout the Iberian Peninsula. In order to investigate the taphonomic signature of this raptor, rabbit remains from 79 pellets were examined. Results show a high proportion of distal elements of the limb bones and skull. Compared with other diurnal birds of prey, the assemblages produced by this species appear to show a higher degree of breakage and corrosion from digestion. These results place this predator within a category similar to the small mammal carnivores (category 5) in terms of skeletal element abundance, breakage and digestion. It is hoped that these data will enable analysts to identify leporid fossils accumulated by the Spanish Imperial Eagle in archaeological assemblages.     

A new application of dental wear analyses: estimation of duration of hominid occupations in archaeological localities

Characterization of settlement patterns is one of the core concepts in archeological research. The duration of an occupation is usually estimated through zooarchaeology (e.g., density of remains, cementochronology) and is limited by taphonomic processes and sample size. We propose a new application of dental wear methods for estimating the relative duration of hominid settlements in Paleolithic sites. Dental microwear is known to be sensitive to seasonal changes in diet. In this new application we use microwear scratch counts to estimate the variation in the dietary signal of various ungulate species. We propose that this variation is correlated to the duration of site occupation. Each season presents a limited and different set of food resources available in the environment. If animals are sampled only during a specific season (i.e., during a short term occupation) then they would be expected to have a dental wear signal with little variation. On the other hand, a greater diversity of food is available across different seasons. Therefore, if game animals are hunted through various seasons during long occupation periods, then they would be expected to have more variable dental wear. The application of this technique to the Middle Paleolithic site of Arago Cave (France), where various types of occupations occurred, supports this hypothesis. When combined with multidisciplinary studies of archaeological localities (seasonality in particular), this new application of dental wear analysis presents valuable information about hominid settlements and behavior. We contextualize our data with results from lithic and zooarchaeological analyses from Arago. These results reveal the presence of both high and low mobility groups of Homo heidelbergensis throughout the sequence of the Arago Cave.     

Deconstructing the concept of Subneolithic farming in the southeastern Baltic

The paper presents a critical review of the zooarchaeological, macrobotanical, palynological and archaeological data from Lithuania and their previous interpretations, which formerly served as the basis for the concept of development of pre-Neolithic or Subneolithic low intensity farming and/or livestock breeding in the eastern Baltic region. Moreover, it presents the first direct AMS dates from the crop remains and domestic animal bones discovered in Lithuanian Subneolithic and Neolithic settlements. An investigation proved that most of, or possibly all, the early farming “evidence” came from the wrong identification of the plant and animal species and incorrect dating of crop remains and domestic animal bones. The errors of dating were caused by the fresh water reservoir effect being ignored when dating the bulk lacustrine sediment samples, by the failure to evaluate the impact of the palimpsest and bioturbation phenomena on the formation of an archaeological layer, and by insufficient attention to stratigraphy and spatial documentation of the finds during very extensive archaeological excavations in the second half of the 20th century. To date, no credible evidence is available in Lithuania that domestic animals had been kept and crops grown before the Neolithic Globular Amphora and Corded Ware cultures in 3200/2700 cal bc. However, this does not mean such evidence may not appear in the future, provided direct AMS dating of animal and crop residues from Subneolithic contexts continues, and systematic macrobotanical studies finally start not only in the lake settlement and fishing sites, but also in higher altitude areas.     

Palaeopathology: the study of disease in the past

Palaeopathology studies ancient human or animal remains from a pathological point of view, for which techniques and tools such as inspection and light and electron microscopy after adequate rehydration, immunohistochemistry and molecular biology are used. Despite the degradation of tissues, partial preservation of their structure and content after a natural or artificial mummification process often allows the extraction of valuable biological data, which sometimes provides interesting historical information.     

Les petits ongulés de la grotte acheuléano-moustérienne du Lazaret (Nice,France) – Origine anthropique ou carnivore ?

Lazaret Cave contains archaeological deposits contemporaneous with Acheulean and Mousterian cultures, corresponding to marine isotopic stage 6 (MIS 6). Archaeological excavations at the site revealed twenty-nine archaeostratigraphic units with recurring, relatively long occupations by Homo heidelbergensis groups. These groups preferentially hunted red deer and ibex, which were abundant in all the units. In contrast, other species, such as the chamois and the roe deer, are poorly represented. In this article, we present the results of the archaeozoological and taphonomic analyses of small ungulate bones in order to determine how these remains were deposited in the cave. Opportunistic anthropogenic hunting is brought to light in some units, explaining the low proportion of these species at the site. In addition, these species only provide low nutrient levels for the needs of the group. The accumulation of remains by carnivores is also observed, mainly by the wolf, which is abundant in the upper units.