大鼠脑缺血再灌注时水通道蛋白4表达与血脑屏障通透性变化

目的:研究大鼠脑缺血/再灌注时脑组织中水通道蛋4(AQP4)表达与脑水肿、血脑屏障通透性间关系。方法:采用大鼠大脑中动脉线栓缺血模型,免疫组化法、蛋白印迹法测定AQP4表达,干湿重法测定脑水含量以评价脑水肿,伊文氏蓝(EB)法测定血脑屏障通透性。结果:脑缺血后再灌注4～6h,AQP4表达上调,至12h上调显著,48～72h达高峰。脑水含量、EB含量均与此趋势相一致,且AQP4表达与脑水含量、EB含量呈显著正相关(P0.05)。结论:AQP4表达参与了缺血性脑水肿的产生,且与BBB通透性改变呈正相关。     

缺氧对世居高原藏族人脐静脉内皮细胞ET和NO水平的影响

目的: 观察世居高原藏族人静脉血ET和NO含量和缺氧对培养脐静脉内皮细胞ET和NO水平的影响,以期从胎儿生长发育的角度探讨人类高原适应的机制.方法: 分别以放射免疫分析法和Greiss法测定世居高原藏族、移居高原汉族和平原汉族人静脉血ET和NO含量.体外培养世居高原藏族和移居高原汉族新生儿UVECs,分为4组:①世居高原藏族人UVECs常氧组(TC);②世居高原藏族人UVECs缺氧组(TH);③移居高原汉族人UVECs常氧组(HC);④移居高原汉族人UVECs缺氧组(HH),收集培养上清液测定ET和NO含量.结果: 世居高原藏族人静脉血NO水平显著高于移居高原汉族人,而ET水平显著低于移居高原汉族人.体外低氧(0.5% O2)条件培养12 h和24 h时,TH组ET浓度显著低于HH组,而HH组与TH组和HC组与TC组相应时间点之间的NO浓度差异无显著性意义.结论: 缺氧时世居高原藏族人UVECs ET分泌增高的程度较低,可能有助于保持相对低的血管张力,有利于胎儿血液供应.     

血脑屏障与脑血管疾病的相关研究

血脑屏障（blood brain barrier,BBB）的主要结构包括：脑毛细血管内皮细胞及其间的紧密连接（tight junction,TJ）、基底膜、基 底膜下星型胶质细胞终足。血脑屏障是存在于血液和脑组织之间的一层屏障系统,在许多大脑疾患的病理过程中,BBB 的破坏导 致通透性增高都是不可避免的一个环节。BBB是保证中枢神经系统的正常生理功能的重要屏障系统。目前已有大量关于血脑屏 障通透性在脑血管疾病中的变化研究。本文分别从血脑屏障的结构和功能,药物通过血脑屏障的方法和功能,脑缺血损伤、阿尔 茨海默病、帕金森病和多发性硬化症等不同的脑病变与血脑屏障通透性的变化及中医药应用等方面做一综述。有针对性地对 BBB和大脑疾病进行进一步的研究与探索,将会为临床治疗相关疾病带来新的视角与机遇。     

1840 MHz射频辐射对大鼠血脑屏障通透性的影响

目的:探讨环境射频辐射暴露对雄性SD大鼠血脑屏障通透性的影响。方法:36只成年雄性SD大鼠随机分为暴露组和假暴露组,对暴露组大鼠进行频率为1840 MHz、比吸收率(SAR值)为2 W/kg、每日1 h、连续7 d的全身辐照。硝酸镧示踪透射电镜法和白蛋白免疫组化法观察暴露后大鼠脑皮质血脑屏障超微结构和通透性,免疫印迹法检测血脑屏障紧密连接相关蛋白ZO-1表达水平。结果:透射电镜结果显示,假暴露组镧颗粒仅出现在大鼠脑微血管管腔内;而在暴露组,除微血管管腔外,在局部脑皮质微血管内皮基底膜处和周围脑实质间亦可见镧颗粒沉积。免疫组化染色显示,假暴露组大鼠脑皮质微血管周围未见白蛋白渗出,而暴露组大鼠脑皮质微血管周围有明显白蛋白沉积。上述结果提示,射频辐射暴露可能增加血脑屏障通透性。免疫印迹结果显示,与假暴露组相比,暴露组大鼠脑皮质ZO-1蛋白表达水平明显降低(P0.001),差异具有统计学意义。结论:1840 MHz射频辐射可诱导血脑屏障发生一定程度地开放,紧密连接相关蛋白ZO-1表达水平的改变可能参与该过程。     

高迁移率族蛋白1拮抗剂BoxA对血管性痴呆大鼠急性期海马区域神经炎症的抑制作用

目的:探究高迁移率族蛋白1(HMGB1)拮抗剂BoxA脑室立体定向注射对双侧颈总动脉闭塞(2VO)后大鼠海马区域神经炎症(血脑屏障通透性、小胶质细胞的激活以及炎症因子水平等)的抑制作用。方法:60只雄性Sprague-Dawley(SD)大鼠分为假手术组(即Sham组)、PBS组以及BoxA组(各组n=20),分别在行2VO(n=40,正常手术)或假手术(n=20,仅暴露不结扎)后,立即用BoxA(10μg在10uL PBS溶液中,n=20)或者等体积PBS(n=20)立体定向注射到左侧侧脑室中。造模3 d后,用HMGB1和NeuN免疫荧光双染,western blot观察HMGB1出核现象,伊文思蓝(EB)染色和脑水含量测量评价血脑屏障(BBB)通透性,Iba1免疫荧光染色观察小胶质细胞活化,定量逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)检测炎症细胞因子(白介素1β(Interleukin-1β, IL-1β)和白介素6(In-terleukin-6, IL-6)和肿瘤坏死因子α(Tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α))的基因表达水平。结果:相比Sham组,PBS组海马CA1亚区HMGB1阳性细胞核(%)以及HMGB1NeuN阳性细胞/HMGB1阳性细胞(%)显著下降(P0.01),而BoxA组以上改变较PBS组部分减少(P0.05)。PBS组EB渗漏、脑含水量均较Sham组显著增加(P0.001),而BoxA组以上指标均较PBS组明显减轻(P0.05)。PBS组Iba1阳性细胞相比Sham组明显增多(P0.01),且炎症因子(IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α)表达显著增高(P0.05);而相比PBS组,BoxA组Iba1阳性细胞表达减少((P0.05),且炎症因子(IL-1β、IL-6 and TNF-α表达明显减少(P0.05)。结论:HMGB1抑制剂BoxA立体定向注射能够有效缓解急性期血管性痴呆大鼠海马区域的神经炎症反应。     

缺血预适应对小鼠脑缺血再灌注损伤模型血脑屏障的保护作用及机制

目的:通过研究缺血预适应对小鼠脑缺血再灌注损伤血脑屏障通透性的影响,探讨缺血预适应的脑保护作用及相关分子机制。方法:取清洁健康成年小鼠72只,随机分为脑缺血预适应组(brain ischemic precondition,BIP),脑缺血再灌注组(middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion,MCAO/R)和假手术组(sham group),每组均24只,采用zealonga线栓法栓塞小鼠大脑中动脉建立BIP模型和MCAO/R模型,通过氯化三苯基四氮唑(triphenyl tetrazolium chloride,TTC)染色计算脑梗死面积,改良神经功能缺损评分(modified neurological severity scores,m NSS)对脑缺血再灌注神经损伤程度进行评估,测干-湿重法以及伊文氏蓝(Evans blue,EB)示踪结合脑组织EB定量法评价血脑屏障(blood brain barrier,BBB)的损伤程度,采用免疫组化法检测各组脑组织低氧诱导因子-1α(HIF-1α)和血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的表达。结果:与MCAO组相比,BIP组显著降低缺血再灌注后m NSS评分,缩小了梗死面积并减轻脑水肿,有效的保护BBB功能,BIP组再灌注24 h时脑梗死灶周围皮质区HIF-1α及VEGF的表达均明显上调,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:BIP对小鼠脑缺血再灌注损伤模型BBB有一定的保护作用,其机制可能与其诱导HIF-1α及VEGF的表达上调有关。     

十二井穴刺络放血联合亚低温治疗对颅脑创伤急性期大鼠脑水肿的影响

目的:探讨十二井穴刺络放血联合亚低温对颅脑创伤(TBI)大鼠急性期脑水肿的影响。方法:将75只健康成年雄性SD大鼠随机分为5组(n=15):假手术组(Sham)、颅脑创伤组(TBI)、放血组(BL)、亚低温组(MIH)、放血联合亚低温组(BL+MIH)。采用电子脑皮质损伤撞击仪(eCCI)建立大鼠TBI模型,BL组于伤后即刻行十二井穴刺络放血,每日2次;MIH组在伤后即刻采用亚低温冰毯使体温降至32℃,持续干预6 h。伤后48 h分别采用核磁共振成像技术(MRI)观察脑水肿变化(n=3)、神经功能缺损评分(m NSS)观察行为学改变及干/湿重法测定脑含水量(n=8)、伊文思蓝染色(EB)检测血脑屏障通透性(BBB)(n=4)。结果:MRI显示,TBI组脑水肿及血肿明显,中线明显偏移;而干预组较TBI组水肿明显减轻,中线居中。与TBI组比较,各干预组m NSS评分均明显改善(P0.05),而且BL+MIH组优于单独BL和MIH组(均P0.01);各干预组脑含水量也有不同程度降低(P0.05),尤以MIH组和BL+MIH组降低最为显著(P0.01);各干预组血脑屏障通透性均有明显改善(均P0.01),而且MIH组和BL+MIH组显著优于单独BL组(P0.05,P0.01)。结论:十二井穴刺络放血和亚低温均可以降低神经功能缺陷评分,减轻脑水肿,降低血脑屏障通透性,对创伤性大鼠脑组织有保护作用,且二者联合治疗效果更加明显。     

血脑屏障上的药物转运体P-糖蛋白

血脑屏障(Blood-brain Barrier,简称BBB)是维护脑内环境稳态的重要功能单位,它不仅可以阻止血液中的有害物质进入脑组织,而且能够清除脑内的有毒代谢产物。BBB上表达的转运系统在积极转运营养物质入脑和选择性外排药物的两个方面均发挥了重要作用。其中P-糖蛋白由于自身结构功能的特异性和作用底物的广泛性而备受关注。本文主要论述了BBB上P-糖蛋白的特性、表达、转运底物及其体内外研究的进展情况。P-糖蛋白作为BBB的重要组成部分在中枢神经系统治疗药物的摄取、分布和排泄中发挥了越来越重要的作用。因此,对P-糖蛋白的研究将有助于阐明药物脑部转运机制,为增加药物的BBB通透性、提高脑内靶点药物浓度提供新的研究思路。     

七叶皂苷钠对细菌性脑膜炎大鼠RhoA/ROCK通路及血脑屏障通透性的影响CSCD

目的探讨七叶皂苷钠(SA)对细菌性脑膜炎(BM)大鼠肉瘤同源基因A(RhoA)/Rho相关螺旋卷曲蛋白激酶(ROCK)通路及血脑屏障通透性的影响。方法将SD新生大鼠随机分为正常对照组、模型组、SA低剂量(1.75 mg/kg)组、SA中剂量(3.50 mg/kg)组、SA高剂量(7.00 mg/kg)组和阳性对照(青霉素,0.18 g/kg)组,每组20只。除正常对照组外,其余各组大鼠均经小脑延髓池注射B族溶血性链球菌建立BM模型,建模成功后经腹腔注射给予相应剂量药物,连续给药3 d,2次/d。末次给药12 h后,处死大鼠,采用酶联免疫吸附试剂盒(ELISA)检测脑脊液中炎症因子白细胞介素-6(IL-6)、肿瘤坏死因子(TNF-α)水平;血细胞分析仪检测脑脊液中白细胞(WBC)数量;伊文思蓝(EB)染色法检测大鼠血脑屏障通透性;干湿比重法计算各组大鼠脑组织含水量;免疫组化法检测脑皮质组织RhoA、ROCK阳性表达水平;蛋白免疫印迹法(Western blotting)检测脑皮质组织血脑屏障相关分子闭锁连接蛋白-1(ZO-1)、紧密连接蛋白-5(Claudin-5)、水通道蛋白4(AQP4)及RhoA/ROCK通路相关蛋白肌球蛋白轻链(MLC)、丝切蛋白1(Cofilin1)相对表达水平。结果与正常对照组相比,模型组大鼠神经行为评分及脑皮质组织中ZO-1蛋白、Claudin-5蛋白、AQP4蛋白表达降低(均P<0.05),脑脊液WBC数量、IL-6水平、TNF-α水平、脑含水量、脑组织EB含量、脑皮质组织RhoA与ROCK阳性表达、p-MLC/MLC、p-Cofilin1/Cofilin1蛋白表达升高(均P<0.05)。与模型组相比,SA低、中、高剂量组与阳性对照组大鼠神经行为评分及脑皮质组织中ZO-1蛋白、Claudin-5蛋白、AQP4蛋白表达升高(均P<0.05),脑脊液WBC数量、IL-6水平、TNF-α水平、脑含水量、脑组织EB含量、脑皮质组织RhoA与ROCK阳性表达及p-MLC/MLC蛋白、p-Cofilin1/Cofilin1蛋白表达降低(均P<0.05);SA中、高剂量组上述指标变化优于SA低剂量组(P<0.05),阳性对照组上述指标变化弱于SA低剂量组(P<0.05);SA中剂量组与高剂量组相比差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论SA可改善BM大鼠脑水肿及血脑屏障通透性,且其改善血脑屏障损伤的作用可能与抑制RhoA/ROCK通路激活有关。     

低氧对高原鼠兔和大鼠血液NO 与ET-1的影响

将Wistar大鼠暴露于3 780 m低氧环境,分别于24 h、2 wk及3 wk后采用酶联免疫法和硝酸还原酶法测定血液中的ET~(-1)和NO的含量,计算NO/ET~(-1)值,并与高原鼠兔比较,探讨低氧条件下大鼠与高原鼠兔血液中NO与ET~(-1)含量的变化趋势。结果表明,低氧24 h后,大鼠血液中NO和ET~(-1)的含量显著高于同海拔的高原鼠兔(P<0·01),而NO/ET~(-1)值无显著差异(P>0·05)。随着大鼠在高海拔停留时间的延长,血液中NO含量呈减少趋势,而ET~(-1)则有上升趋势,二者呈显著的负相关(r2=0·2416,P<0·01)。高原鼠兔NO/ET~(-1)值约为大鼠低氧2 wk和3 wk的2倍(P<0·01)。说明不同低氧暴露时间,高原鼠兔和大鼠的NO、ET~(-1)及NO/ET~(-1)值有显著差异,提示NO/ET~(-1)值可以作为有机体是否适应高原低氧环境的一个指标。     

Apocynum venetum Leaf Extract Attenuates Disruption of the Blood–Brain Barrier and Upregulation of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9/-2 in a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury

We investigated the neuroprotective effects of Apocynum venetum leaf extract (AVLE) on a rat model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury and explored the underlying mechanisms. Rats were randomly divided into five groups: sham, ischemia-reperfusion, AVLE125, AVLE250, and AVLE500. Cerebral ischemia was induced by 1.5 h of occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Cerebral infarct area was measured by tetrazolium staining at 24 and 72 h after reperfusion, and neurological function was evaluated at 24, 48 and 72 h after reperfusion. Pathological changes on the ultrastructure of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) were observed by transmission electron microscopy. BBB permeability was assessed by detecting leakage of Evan's blue (EB) dye in brain tissue. The expression and activities of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9/-2 were measured by western blot analyses and gelatin zymography at 24 h after reperfusion. AVLE (500 mg/kg/day) significantly reduced cerebral infarct area, improved recovery of neurological function, relieved morphological damage to the BBB, reduced water content and EB leakage in the brain, and downregulated the expression and activities of MMP-9/-2. These findings suggest that AVLE protects against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced injury by alleviating BBB disruption. This action may be due to its inhibitory effects on the expression and activities of MMP-9/-2.     

Effect of aluminum on the blood-brain barrier permeability during nitric oxide-blockade-induced chronic hypertension in rats

We examined the effect of aluminum on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) during nitric oxide-blockade-induced chronic hypertension in rats. Animals were given the inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, l-NAME (N ^ω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester), for 4 wk to induce chronic hypertension. Two groups of rats were given an intraperitoneal injection of aluminum chloride. The integrity of the BBB was assessed by a quantitative measurement for Evans blue (EB) dye. The arterial blood pressure in l-NAME- and l-NAME plus aluminum-treated animals was significantly elevated from 115±2.8 and 110±1.7 mm Hg to 174±5.2 and 175±4.8 mm Hg, respectively (p<0.01). The EB dye content in the brain regions of the rats in the l-NAME group was increased, but there was no statistical significance compared to the saline group. The extravasation of EB dye was significantly increased in the brain regions of the animals treated with aluminum compared to the rats treated with saline (p<0.05). A significantly higher EB dye content in the brain regions was observed in the l-NAME plus aluminium group compared to l-NAME, aluminum, and saline groups (p<0.01). These findings indicate that exposure to a high level of aluminum leads to an additional increase in BBB permeability where nitric oxide-blockade-induced chronic hypertension potentiates the effect of aluminum to enhance BBB permeability to EB dye.     

The protective effect of alpha lipoic acid against traumatic brain injury in rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) was induced by a weight-drop device using 300 g–1 m weight-height impact. The study groups were: control, alpha-lipoic acid (LA) (100 mg/kg, po), TBI, and TBI + LA (100 mg/kg, po). Forty-eight hours after the injury, neurological scores were measured and brain samples were taken for histological examination or determination of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and glutathione (GSH) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase activities, whereas cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) were determined in blood. Brain oedema was evaluated by wet–dry weight method and blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability was evaluated by Evans Blue (EB) extravasation. As a result, neurological scores mildly increased in trauma groups. Moreover, TBI caused a significant decrease in brain GSH and Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase activity, which was accompanied with significant increases in TBARS level, MPO activity and plasma proinflammatory cytokines. LA treatment reversed all these biochemical indices as well as histopathological alterations. TBI also caused a significant increase in brain water content and EB extravasation which were partially reversed by LA treatment. These findings suggest that LA exerts neuroprotection by preserving BBB permeability and by reducing brain oedema probably by its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in the TBI model.     

Effect of losartan on the blood-brain barrier permeability in diabetic hypertensive rats

Our previous publication has stressed the benefits of losartan, an angiotensin II receptor blocker, on the permeability of blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood pressure during L-NAME-induced hypertension. This study reports the impacts of anti-hypertensive treatment by losartan on the brain endothelial barrier function and the arterial blood pressure, during acute hypertension episode, in experimentally diabetic hypertensive rats. Systolic blood pressure measurements were taken with tail cuff method before and during administration of L-NAME (0.5 mg/ml). We induced diabetes by using alloxan (50 mg/kg, i.p). Losartan (3 mg/kg, i.v) was given to rats following the L-NAME treatment. Acute hypertensive vascular injury was induced by epinephrine (40 microg/kg). The BBB disruption was quantified according to the extravasation of the Evans blue (EB) dye. L-NAME induced a significant increase in arterial blood pressure on day 14 in normoglycemic and hyperglycemic rats (p < 0.05). Losartan significantly reduced the increased blood pressure in hypertensive and diabetic hypertensive rats (p < 0.01). Epinephrine-induced acute hypertension in diabetic hypertensive rats increased the content of EB dye dramatically in cerebellum and diencephalon (p < 0.01) and slightly in both cerebral cortex (p < 0.05). Losartan treatment reduced the increased BBB permeability to EB dye in the brain regions of diabetic hypertensive rats treated with epinephrine (p < 0.05). This study indicates that, in diabetic hypertensive rats, epinephrine administration leads to an increase in microvascular-EB-albumin efflux to brain, however losartan treatment significantly attenuates this protein's transport to brain tissue.     

Treatment with the NK1 Antagonist Emend Reduces Blood Brain Barrier Dysfunction and Edema Formation in an Experimental Model of Brain Tumors

The neuropeptide substance P (SP) has been implicated in the disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and development of cerebral edema in acute brain injury. Cerebral edema accumulates rapidly around brain tumors and has been linked to several tumor-associated deficits. Currently, the standard treatment for peritumoral edema is the corticosteroid dexamethasone, prolonged use of which is associated with a number of deleterious side effects. As SP is reported to increase in many cancer types, this study examined whether SP plays a role in the genesis of brain peritumoral edema. A-375 human melanoma cells were injected into the right striatum of male Balb/c nude mice to induce brain tumor growth, with culture medium injected in animals serving as controls. At 2, 3 or 4 weeks following tumor cell inoculation, non-treated animals were perfusion fixed for immunohistochemical detection of Albumin, SP and NK1 receptor. A further subgroup of animals was treated with a daily injection of the NK1 antagonist Emend (3 mg/kg), dexamethasone (8 mg/kg) or saline vehicle at 3 weeks post-inoculation. Animals were sacrificed a week later to determine BBB permeability using Evan''s Blue and brain water content. Non-treated animals demonstrated a significant increase in albumin, SP and NK1 receptor immunoreactivity in the peritumoral area as well as increased perivascular staining in the surrounding brain tissue. Brain water content and BBB permeability was significantly increased in tumor-inoculated animals when compared to controls (p<0.05). Treatment with Emend and dexamethasone reduced BBB permeability and brain water content when compared to vehicle-treated tumor-inoculated mice. The increase in peritumoral staining for both SP and the NK1 receptor, coupled with the reduction in brain water content and BBB permeability seen following treatment with the NK1 antagonist Emend, suggests that SP plays a role in the genesis of peritumoral edema, and thus warrants further investigation as a potential anti-edematous treatment.     

Volatile Anesthetics Influence Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity by Modulation of Tight Junction Protein Expression in Traumatic Brain Injury

Disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) results in cerebral edema formation, which is a major cause for high mortality after traumatic brain injury (TBI). As anesthetic care is mandatory in patients suffering from severe TBI it may be important to elucidate the effect of different anesthetics on cerebral edema formation. Tight junction proteins (TJ) such as zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and claudin-5 (cl5) play a central role for BBB stability. First, the influence of the volatile anesthetics sevoflurane and isoflurane on in-vitro BBB integrity was investigated by quantification of the electrical resistance (TEER) in murine brain endothelial monolayers and neurovascular co-cultures of the BBB. Secondly brain edema and TJ expression of ZO-1 and cl5 were measured in-vivo after exposure towards volatile anesthetics in native mice and after controlled cortical impact (CCI). In in-vitro endothelial monocultures, both anesthetics significantly reduced TEER within 24 hours after exposure. In BBB co-cultures mimicking the neurovascular unit (NVU) volatile anesthetics had no impact on TEER. In healthy mice, anesthesia did not influence brain water content and TJ expression, while 24 hours after CCI brain water content increased significantly stronger with isoflurane compared to sevoflurane. In line with the brain edema data, ZO-1 expression was significantly higher in sevoflurane compared to isoflurane exposed CCI animals. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed disruption of ZO-1 at the cerebrovascular level, while cl5 was less affected in the pericontusional area. The study demonstrates that anesthetics influence brain edema formation after experimental TBI. This effect may be attributed to modulation of BBB permeability by differential TJ protein expression. Therefore, selection of anesthetics may influence the barrier function and introduce a strong bias in experimental research on pathophysiology of BBB dysfunction. Future research is required to investigate adverse or beneficial effects of volatile anesthetics on patients at risk for cerebral edema.     

The Effects of Zinc Treatment on the Blood–Brain Barrier Permeability and Brain Element Levels During Convulsions

We evaluated the effect of zinc treatment on the blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability and the levels of zinc (Zn), natrium (Na), magnesium (Mg), and copper (Cu) in the brain tissue during epileptic seizures. The Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups, each as follows: (1) control group, (2) pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) group: rats treated with PTZ to induce seizures, (3) Zn group: rats treated with ZnCl₂ added to drinking water for 2 months, and (4) Zn?+?PTZ group. The brains were divided into left, right hemispheres, and cerebellum?+?brain stem regions. Evans blue was used as BBB tracer. Element concentrations were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. The BBB permeability has been found to be increased in all experimental groups (p?<?0.05). Zn concentrations in all brain regions in Zn-supplemented groups (p?<?0.05) showed an increase. BBB permeability and Zn level in cerebellum?+?brain stem region were significantly high compared to cerebral hemispheres (p?<?0.05). In all experimental groups, Cu concentration decreased, whereas Na concentrations showed an increase (p?<?0.05). Mg content in all the brain regions decreased in the Zn group and Zn?+?PTZ groups compared to other groups (p?<?0.001). We also found that all elements’ levels showed hemispheric differences in all groups. During convulsions, Zn treatment did not show any protective effect on BBB permeability. Chronic Zn treatment decreased Mg and Cu concentration and increased Na levels in the brain tissue. Our results indicated that Zn treatment showed proconvulsant activity and increased BBB permeability, possibly changing prooxidant/antioxidant balance and neuronal excitability during seizures.     

Role of VEGF in an experimental model of cortical micronecrosis

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a major mediator in angiogenesis and vascular permeability. In central nervous system (CNS) it plays a pivotal role as: 1. inductor of endothelial cell proliferation, migration and inhibition of apoptosis, and 2. mediator of vascular permeability and subsequently of brain edema. This ubiquitous epiphenomenon is a major complication in several CNS pathologies, including head trauma and stroke.After brain injury the expression of VEGF is increased contributing to disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB). VEGF increase the permeability of BBB via the synthesis/release of nitric oxide and subsequent activation of soluble guanylate cyclase. The immunohistochemistry shows an increase of stained astrocytes and endothelial cells around cortical micronecrosis. VEGF immunopositivity distribution shows some correspondence with the blood brain barrier breakdown following a cortical micronecrosis.     

Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Is Exacerbated in Experimental Model of Hepatic Encephalopathy via MMP-9 Activation and Downregulation of Tight Junction Proteins

The present study was designed to investigate the mechanisms involved in blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in bile duct ligation (BDL) model of chronic hepatic encephalopathy (HE). Four weeks after BDL surgery, a significant increase was observed in serum bilirubin levels. Masson trichrome staining revealed severe hepatic fibrosis in the BDL rats. ^99mTc-mebrofenin retention was increased in the liver of BDL rats suggesting impaired hepatobiliary transport. An increase in permeability to sodium fluorescein, Evans blue, and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran along with increase in water and electrolyte content was observed in brain regions of BDL rats suggesting disrupted BBB. Increased brain water content can be attributed to increase in aquaporin-4 mRNA and protein expression in BDL rats. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) mRNA and protein expression was increased in brain regions of BDL rats. Additionally, mRNA and protein expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) was also increased in different regions of brain. A significant decrease in mRNA expression and protein levels of tight junction proteins, viz., occludin, claudin-5, and zona occluden-1 (ZO-1) was observed in different brain regions of BDL rats. VCAM-1 mRNA and protein expression was also found to be significantly upregulated in different brain regions of BDL animals. The findings from the study suggest that increased BBB permeability in HE involves activation of MMP-9 and loss of tight junction proteins.