Effects of Crop Diversity on Agroecosystem Function: Crop Yield Response

Understanding the role of diversity in the functioning of ecosystems has important implications for agriculture. Previous agricultural research has shown that crop rotation and the use of cover crops can lead to increases in yield relative to monoculture; however, few studies have been performed within the broader context of diversity–ecosystem function theory and in the absence of chemical inputs. We performed a field experiment in SW Michigan, USA, in which we manipulated the number of crop species grown in rotation and as winter cover crops over a 3-year period to test if varying the number of species in a rotation affected grain yield, a critical metric of ecosystem function in row-crops. The experimental design was unique in that no fertilizer or pesticides were used, and the only management variable manipulated was number of species in the rotation, thus providing a strong comparison to grassland diversity–ecosystem function experiments. Treatments included continuous monocultures of three row-crops, corn Zea mays L., soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr., and winter wheat Triticum aestivum L., and 2- and 3-year annual rotations with and without cover crops (zero, one, or two legume/small grain species), encompassing a range of crop diversity from one to six species. Crop yields and weed biomass were measured annually for 3 years and plant available soil nitrogen was measured over the course of the growing season in the final year of the study. In all 3 years, corn grain yield increased linearly in response to the number of crops in the rotation. Corn yields in the highest diversity treatment (three crops, plus three cover crops) were over 100% higher than in continuous monoculture and were not significantly different from the county average for each of the 3 years despite the absence of chemical inputs. Corn yields in the diversity treatments were strongly correlated with the availability of inorganic soil nitrogen, which was likely influenced by the number of different legume species (crops and cover crops) present in the rotation. In soybean and winter wheat, yield differences among crop diversity treatments were also significant, but of lower magnitude (32 and 53%, respectively), and showed little direct relationship to the number of crop species grown in a rotation. Results demonstrate that agricultural research motivated by ecological theory can provide important insights into the functioning of agroecosystems and enhance our understating of the linkages between diversity and ecosystem function. Importantly, these results suggest that reduced chemical inputs do not necessarily result in yield penalties and provide support for incorporation of crop or species diversity when determining how ecosystem services can be included in food, fiber, and biofuel production.     

Divergence of mycorrhizal fungal communities in crop production systems

Mycorrhizal fungi are present in all arable soils and colonize nearly all crops and weed pests of crops. They may be involved as mutualists or pathogens of crops in well known but poorly understood phenomena such as crop rotation and green manure effects on soil productivity. Crop change effects on mycorrhizal fungal community parameters were evaluated in three field experiments. In Experiment 1, soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Douglas) was grown continuously or rotated with corn (Zea mays L.), milo (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), or fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb cv. Johnstone) for two years, then soybean was grown on all plots. Continuous soybean plots were dominated byGigaspora spp., while rotated crops were dominated byGlomus spp. Differences in communities and community indices of continuous soybean and rotated plots were reduced after growing soybeans on rotated plots. In Experiment 2, a fescue sod was plowed and pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum Leeke) or crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.) grown. Both hosts resulted in great changes in populations of individual species, decreases in community dominance, and increases in community diversity and equitability. Crabgrass also resulted in reduced species richness. In Experiment 3, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) or fescue was planted on adjacent tracts of land with a long-term history of either fescue (30 yr) or sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. ×S. sudanense (Piper) Staph.) (3 yr). The long-term cropping history had major effects on the mycorrhizal fungal communities which were related to the expression of mycorrhizal stunt disease of tobacco. Changes occurred in these communities in response to either current-season crop. These experiments suggest that crop rotation causes large changes in mycorrhizal fungal communities, that these changes may be involved in the rotation effect on soil productivity, and that design of cropping systems should take mycorrhizal fungal communities into consideration.     

Taxonomic and functional characteristics of field edge weed communities along a gradient of crop management intensity

The widespread loss of weed diversity and associated ecosystem functions is raising important concerns. Field edges could play a major role in the maintenance of weed functional diversity in arable landscapes as these habitats still harbour high weed diversity, owing to either a reduced farming management intensity and/or to a spillover of species from adjacent perennial field margins. Here, we investigated the taxonomic and functional characteristics of weed species recorded in surveys of field edges and their associated field cores over six consecutive years in 60 arable fields farmed with five crop management strategies. We found that field edges were richer, with species more functionally diverse and composition more stable over years than field core surveys. The distribution of individual functional traits differed between field edges and field cores, with higher values for seed mass and nitrophily (Ellenberg.N), and a wider distribution of specific leaf area values in field edges. The bimodal distribution of plant height and germination period observed in field edges became unimodal in field cores. Field edges harboured species with ecological strategies associated with field cores (ruderal species) plus a conservative strategy which could be explained by a spillover from the adjacent perennial field margins. Crop management strategies impacted field edge flora, though to a lesser extent than the field core flora whereas the functional differences between the field edge and the field core flora were less marked when crop management intensity was lower. These results indicate that field edges harbour a unique assemblage of species and highly contribute to the maintenance of weed diversity in arable landscapes. Future studies should thus focus on the importance of these specific functional traits to the agroecosystem functioning.     

不同作物轮作制度对土壤杂草种子库特征的影响

为明确不同作物轮作制度对杂草种子库特征的影响,比较研究了玉米-小麦(MW)、大豆-小麦(SW)轮作和原水稻-小麦(RW)轮作方式下杂草种子库的特征。结果表明,作物轮作显著影响杂草种子库的密度和种类组成,进行玉米-小麦或大豆-小麦轮作2年后,杂草种子库密度分别比稻麦轮作降低27．16％、44．44％。在原水稻-小麦轮作方式下,种子库中主要杂草为陌上菜、异型莎草、菵草、水苋菜、千金子等。玉米-小麦轮作使种子库中马唐、碎米莎草、飘拂草的相对优势度显著上升,鸭舌草、水苋菜、菵草的相对优势度显著下降。而在大豆-小麦轮作方式下,种子库中通泉草、马唐、鳢肠、飘拂草的相对优势度显著上升。玉米-小麦轮作种子库的物种多样性指数高于大豆-小麦轮作和水稻-小麦轮作。玉米-小麦与大豆-小麦轮作种子库的物种组成相似性较高。作物轮作影响杂草种子库密度和种类组成的机制,可能在于通过轮换种植不同的作物,提供了多样化的选择压,限制了某些对单一种植系统有着良好适应性的杂草种类的生长。     

Meeting the demand for crop production: the challenge of yield decline in crops grown in short rotations

There is a trend world‐wide to grow crops in short rotation or in monoculture, particularly in conventional agriculture. This practice is becoming more prevalent due to a range of factors including economic market trends, technological advances, government incentives, and retailer and consumer demands. Land‐use intensity will have to increase further in future in order to meet the demands of growing crops for both bioenergy and food production, and long rotations may not be considered viable or practical. However, evidence indicates that crops grown in short rotations or monoculture often suffer from yield decline compared to those grown in longer rotations or for the first time. Numerous factors have been hypothesised as contributing to yield decline, including biotic factors such as plant pathogens, deleterious rhizosphere microorganisms, mycorrhizas acting as pathogens, and allelopathy or autotoxicity of the crop, as well as abiotic factors such as land management practices and nutrient availability. In many cases, soil microorganisms have been implicated either directly or indirectly in yield decline. Although individual factors may be responsible for yield decline in some cases, it is more likely that combinations of factors interact to cause the problem. However, evidence confirming the precise role of these various factors is often lacking in field studies due to the complex nature of cropping systems and the numerous interactions that take place within them. Despite long‐term knowledge of the yield‐decline phenomenon, there are few tools to counteract it apart from reverting to longer crop rotations or break crops. Alternative cropping and management practices such as double‐cropping or inter‐cropping, tillage and organic amendments may prove valuable for combating some of the negative effects seen when crops are grown in short rotation. Plant breeding continues to be important, although this does require a specific breeding target to be identified. This review identifies gaps in our understanding of yield decline, particularly with respect to the complex interactions occurring between the different components of agro‐ecosystems, which may well influence food security in the 21^st Century.     

Assembly rules of coral reef fish communities along the depth gradient

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Impact of crop management on intraspecific diversity of Pseudomonas corrugata in bulk soil

Colonization at sugar beet root surfaces by seedling-inoculated biocontrol strain Pseudomonas fluorescens DR54 and native soil bacteria was followed over a period of 3 weeks using a combination of immunofluorescence (DR54-targeting specific antibody) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (rRNA-targeting Eubacteria EUB338 probe) techniques with confocal laser scanning microscopy. The dual staining protocol allowed cellular activity (ribosomal number) to be recorded in both single cells and microcolonies of strain DR54 during establishment on the root. After 2 days, the population density of strain DR54 reached a constant level at the root basis. From this time, however, high cellular activity was only found in few bacteria located as single cells, whereas all microcolony-forming cells occurring in aggregates were still active. In contrast, a low density of strain DR54 was observed at the root tip, but here many of the bacteria located as single cells were active. The native population of soil bacteria, comprising a diverse assembly of morphologically different forms and size classes, initiated colonization at the root basis only after 2 days of incubation. Hence the dual staining protocol allowed direct microscopic studies of early root colonization by both inoculant and native soil bacteria, including their differentiation into active and non-active cells and into single or microcolony-forming cells.     

Bacterial diversity patterns along a gradient of primary productivity

Primary productivity is a key determinant of biodiversity patterns in plants and animals but has not previously been shown to affect bacterial diversity. We examined the relationship between productivity and bacterial richness in aquatic mesocosms designed to mimic small ponds. We observed that productivity could influence the composition and richness of bacterial communities. We showed that, even within the same system, different bacterial taxonomic groups could exhibit different responses to changes in productivity. The richness of members of the Cytophaga‐Flavobacteria‐Bacteroides group exhibited a significant hump‐shaped relationship with productivity, as is often observed for plant and animal richness in aquatic systems. In contrast, we observed a significant U‐shaped relationship between richness and productivity for α‐proteobacteria and no discernable relationship for β‐proteobacteria. We show, for the first time, that bacterial diversity varies along a gradient of primary productivity and thus make an important step towards understanding processes responsible for the maintenance of bacterial biodiversity.     

Diversity and phenology of weed communities in the Nile Delta region

This study evaluates the species diversity and phe-nological behaviour of the weed communities associated with the common crops in the Nile Delta region (three winter crops: Egyptian clover, broad beans and wheat; and three summer crops: cotton, maize and rice). The weed communities of winter crops are of higher diversity than those of summer crops, presumably due to differences in sowing and weeding processes. The phenological sequences of the weed communities are, in most cases, closely related to those of the crops in which they occur. The correspondence between the crucial periods in the life cycle of the weed and the crop (seedling establishment and fruiting) often leads to severe competition.     

亚高山草地土壤原生生物群落结构和多样性海拔分布格局

生物多样性分布格局与维持机制即群落构建机制,是群落生态学研究的热点领域。微生物生态学中的一个关键问题是量化确定性过程和随机过程对微生物群落构建的相对贡献。尽管原生生物是土壤微生物群落中重要的组成部分,在微生物食物链中扮演着关键角色,但与细菌和真菌相比,目前对原生生物群落构建机制知之甚少。运用Illumina Miseq高通量测序技术,分析了五台山亚高山草地生态系统（海拔2000-3061 m范围内）土壤原生生物群落组成和多样性维持机制。结果表明,四个海拔梯度的土壤共获得有效序列520673条,分属于8个超群、24个门、65个纲、125个目、222个科和350个属。门水平上,丝足虫门（Cercozoa）、褐藻门（Ochrophyta）、纤毛门（Ciliophora）和顶复门（Apicomplexa）为主要优势类群。LEfSe分析显示,17个生物标志物对海拔梯度非常敏感,不同海拔梯度富集了不同的原生生物种群。尽管海拔对土壤原生生物群落的α多样性没有显著影响,但非度量多维尺度分析（NMDS）和相似性分析（ANOSIM）结果表明,原生生物群落组成和结构在海拔梯度上存在显著的差异（P<0.05）。冗余分析（RDA）显示海拔、土壤含水量、总氮和植物丰富度指数与原生生物群落结构存在显著相关性（P<0.05）。方差分解分析（VPA）和偏Mantel分析表明环境因子和空间变量对原生生物群落海拔分布格局均有显著影响,但是环境因子的相对作用（7.9%）明显大于空间变量（1.8%）。土壤原生生物群落之间的Bray-Curtis距离与海拔距离呈显著正相关关系（P<0.05）,说明选择过程可能是亚高山草地土壤原生生物群落分布格局的主要驱动因素。零模型分析进一步证实了确定性过程在原生生物群落构建中的相对作用大于随机过程。总之,五台山亚高山草地土壤原生生物群落组成和结构沿海拔梯度具有显著的变化格局,群落构建主要由确定性过程和随机过程驱动,但确定性过程占主导地位。     

攀西高原不同轮作制度下土壤固氮微生物nifH基因多样性与群落结构特征

[背景]关于高原生境轮作制度对土壤固氮微生物群落组成及多样性的影响研究尚少。[目的]深入认识攀西高原不同轮作制度对农田土壤肥力及土壤固氮微生物nifH基因群落结构与多样性的影响,以期建立合理的轮作制度。[方法]以凉山州冕宁县不同作物轮作制度[包括光叶紫花苕-烤烟(分轮作15年和20年两种,分别为G1和G2)、苦荞-烤烟(KQ)、大麦-烤烟(DM)和撂荒(CK)]的土壤为研究对象,通过化学分析和Illumina MiSeq技术,对土壤理化性质、土壤固氮微生物nifH基因多样性及群落组成进行分析。[结果]撂荒土壤全氮、铵态氮、硝态氮、有机碳和含水量最显著(P<0.05)。KQ轮作下土壤有效磷和速效钾分别提高了43.0%和2.60%,而DM轮作下的土壤理化性质均下降。土壤固氮酶活以撂荒土壤最高,G2轮作最低。土壤固氮微生物nifH基因多样性以G1轮作最高、G2轮作最低,门水平上以变形菌门(Proteobacteria)是优势共有nifH基因类群,相对丰度占群落的63.0%-92.4%;属水平上,偶氮氢单胞菌属(Azohydromonas)是不同轮作制度下的优势物种,慢生根瘤属(Brad...     

不同施肥方式对稻麦轮作田土壤杂草种子库的影响

为揭示不同施肥方式(纯施化肥、有机肥配施化肥、秸秆还田配施有机无机肥、有机无机复合肥)对稻麦两熟制地区农田土壤杂草种子库的影响, 在江苏常州金坛区进行了固定施肥试验。经过连续4年试验处理后, 对不同施肥处理下农田土壤杂草种子库杂草种子种类及密度进行了调查, 并对杂草种子多样性、数量、分布与施肥措施的关系进行了分析。结果表明, 与不施肥相比, 施肥有减少稻麦轮作田土壤杂草种子库杂草种子种类数、杂草种子群落均匀度指数和物种多样性指数的趋势, 并使稻麦轮作田土壤杂草种子库杂草种子总密度明显降低。施肥明显提高了土壤杂草种子库菵草(Beckmannia syzigachne)、日本看麦娘(Alopecurus japonicus)、看麦娘(A. aequalis)种子的密度, 施用猪粪堆肥配施化肥处理提高程度更为显著; 秸秆还田配施化肥、秸秆还田配施有机肥化肥、有机无机复合肥施用处理有减少菵草、日本看麦娘、看麦娘杂草种子密度的趋势。施肥明显降低了土壤杂草种子库阔叶杂草种子密度; 施用有机肥有增加土壤杂草种子库水苦荬(Veronica undulata)、蛇床(Cnidium monnieri)种子密度的趋势; 施用猪粪堆肥有增加土壤杂草种子库鸭舌草(Monochoria vaginalis)种子密度的趋势。因此, 不同种类杂草对不同肥料存在偏好性差异, 不同施肥方式造成了土壤杂草种子库优势物种组成的差异。     

甘南高寒草甸海拔梯度上功能多样性与生态系统多功能的关系

植物群落功能多样性与生态系统多功能的关系是近年来生态学研究的新视角,以往的研究多关注植物群落功能多样性与单一生态系统功能的关系,缺乏对生态系统多功能的理解。本研究以甘南高寒草甸植物群落为对象,选取地上生物量、土壤有机碳、土壤全氮、土壤全磷、土壤速效氮和土壤速效磷6个功能指标,运用Bartlett球形度检验与多阈值分析法,分析甘南高寒草甸海拔梯度上植物群落功能多样性与生态系统多功能的关系。结果表明:不同海拔植物群落组成差异显著,且海拔3500 m物种丰富度、植物盖度显著高于其他海拔。一元、多元功能多样性随海拔升高总体呈降低趋势,且海拔间差异显著。冗余分析发现,一元、多元功能丰富度、功能均匀度、Rao的二次熵均与土壤温度、土壤含水量、土壤容重呈显著正相关,与土壤pH、土壤电导率呈显著负相关。在较大阈值范围(6%～89%)内,功能多样性对生态系统多功能具有显著正效应;基于相关分析、最优回归模型和随机森林模型分析发现,功能多样性中多元功能丰富度指数与生态系统多功能具有显著正线性关系,同时多元功能丰富度也是生态系统多功能的主要驱动因素。总体来看,功能丰富度对青藏高原高寒草甸生态系统多功能的影响最为显著。     

轮作模式对冬小麦土壤氨氧化微生物群落多样性和组成的影响

农田温室气体减排已成为农业绿色发展的重要内容,驱动温室气体氧化亚氮(N₂O)产生的氨氧化微生物受到了研究者们的广泛关注。为探究轮作模式对土壤氨氧化微生物群落的影响,基于田间定位试验,研究了夏红小豆-冬小麦、夏绿豆-冬小麦、夏花生-冬小麦、夏大豆-冬小麦和夏玉米-冬小麦5种轮作模式中冬小麦根际和非根际土壤氨氧化古菌(AOA)和氨氧化细菌(AOB)的群落组成和多样性变化特征。结果表明:与夏玉米-冬小麦模式相比,豆禾轮作模式增加了根际土中有机碳和硝态氮含量,以及非根际土中全氮和铵态氮含量。豆禾轮作模式降低了非根际土壤中AOA群落的ACE指数和Chao1指数,并显著降低根际土中AOB群落的ACE指数和Chao1指数(P<0.05)。豆禾轮作显著增加AOA群落中泉古菌门(Crenarchaeota)和AOB群落中变形菌门(Proteobacteria)某些类群的相对丰度(P<0.05)。根际土中豆禾轮作模式与麦玉模式的AOA群落结构发生明显分离,而非根际土中豆禾轮作模式与麦玉模式的AOB群落发生分离(P<0.05)。研究结果表明:豆禾轮作种植改变了AOA和AOB的群落结构和多样性,土壤pH值和速效氮含量是驱动AOA和AOB群落结构变化的重要因子,且根际与非根际土壤中氨氧化微生物存在生态位分离。     

Community assembly along a species pool gradient: implications for multiple-scale patterns of species diversity

Various ecological processes influence patterns of species diversity at multiple spatial scales. One process that is potentially important but rarely considered is community assembly. I assembled model communities using species pools of differing size to examine how the history of community assembly may affect multi-scale diversity patterns. The model contained three scales at which diversity could be measured: local community, metacommunity, and species pool. Local species saturation occurred, as expected from the competition and predation built in the model. However, local communities did not become resistant to invasions except when the species pool was very small. Depending on dispersal rate and trophic level, the larger the species pool, the harder it was to predict which species invades which local community at a given time. Consequently, local-community dissimilarity maintained by assembly history increased linearly with pool size, even though local diversity was decoupled from pool size. These results have two implications for multi-scale diversity patterns. First, assembly history may provide an explanation for scale-dependent relationships between local and regional diversity: assembly causes the relationship to be curvilinear at one scale (local community), while linear at another (metacommunity). Second, assembly history influences how -diversity is partitioned into - and -diversity: assembly causes the relative contribution of to increase with pool size. Overall, this study suggests that community assembly history interacts with species pool size to regulate multi-scale patterns of species diversity.     

施肥和杂草多样性对土壤微生物群落的影响

常年使用化肥和除草剂以及农业新技术的高投入,使我国粮食主产区耕地出现了生产力降低、土壤生物多样性失调和污染严重等生态问题。采用磷脂脂肪酸(PLFA)方法来评估施肥和杂草多样性对冬小麦土壤微生物群落结构的影响。实验采用裂区实验设计,施肥作为主因素,杂草多样性作为次因素。化肥和有机肥两个施肥处理,在两个施肥处理中进行杂草多样性设置,实验盆中心种植作物(冬小麦8株),四周种植杂草(8株),杂草种类选择野燕麦、苜蓿、菊苣、播娘蒿。杂草多样性处理设为0、1、2、4种杂草处理,0种杂草处理仅种植作物,有6盆;1种杂草处理为每盆种1种杂草,有12盆;2种杂草处理为每盆种两种杂草,有12盆;4种杂草处理为每盆种4种杂草,有6盆。结果表明:在两种施肥处理中,增加杂草多样性显著增加了土壤碳氮比和p H值,碳氮比都是在4种杂草处理中最高。施化肥处理中,增加杂草多样性显著影响真菌和细菌比,真菌和细菌比在4种杂草处理中最大,显著高于0、1、2种杂草处理。在施有机肥处理中,增加杂草多样性显著影响阳性菌和阴性菌比,阳性菌和阴性菌比在0种杂草处理中最低,显著低于1、2、4种杂草处理。在两个施肥处理中,土壤碳氮比与各类群微生物量显著相关,杂草多样性通过改变土壤碳氮比改变微生物群落构成,并且微生物群落结构转变方式不同。     

城市化对蝴蝶多样性的影响:以重庆市为例

2005年5–10月,自重庆市沙坪坝区到北碚区沿城市生境梯度选取了5个断面(沙坪公园、南溪口、回头坡、鸡公山和缙云山),进行蝴蝶取样调查。共采获蝴蝶4,802只,隶属11科41属65种。统计分析表明,东方菜粉蝶(Pieriscanidia)、菜粉蝶(P.rapae)和酢浆灰蝶(Pseudozizeeriamaha)等3种为优势种,青凤蝶(Graphiumsarpedon)、宽边黄粉蝶(Euremahecabe)、连纹黛眼蝶(Lethesyrcis)、黄钩蛱蝶(Polygoniac-aureum)、点玄灰蝶(Tongeiafilicaudis)和直纹稻弄蝶(Parnaraguttata)等9种为常见种。多样性指数变化趋势为缙云山>回头坡>鸡公山>南溪口>沙坪公园。沿城市生境梯度,从人为干扰较大的沙坪公园(城市化水平较高的代表)到人为干扰较小的缙云山(城市化水平较低的代表),蝴蝶多样性指数基本呈递增趋势,且植被种类丰富度越高、覆盖率越高、日照量越高的生境,蝴蝶种类和数量越多,蝴蝶多样性指数也越高。蝴蝶的多样性特征可以作为城市生境质量和环境变化的指标。     

Spatiotemporal changes of beetle communities across a tree diversity gradient

Aim Plant and arthropod diversity are often related, but data on the role of mature tree diversity on canopy insect communities are fragmentary. We compare species richness of canopy beetles across a tree diversity gradient ranging from mono‐dominant beech to mixed stands within a deciduous forest, and analyse community composition changes across space and time. Location Germany’s largest exclusively deciduous forest, the Hainich National Park (Thuringia). Methods We used flight interception traps to assess the beetle fauna of various tree species, and applied additive partitioning to examine spatiotemporal patterns of diversity. Results Species richness of beetle communities increased across the tree diversity gradient from 99 to 181 species per forest stand. Intra‐ and interspecific spatial turnover among trees contributed more than temporal turnover among months to the total γ‐beetle diversity of the sampled stands. However, due to parallel increases in the number of habitat generalists and the number of species in each feeding guild (herbivores, predators and fungivores), no proportional changes in community composition could be observed. If only beech trees were analysed across the gradient, patterns were similar but temporal (monthly) species turnover was higher compared to spatial turnover among trees and not related to tree diversity. Main conclusions The changes in species richness and community composition across the gradient can be explained by habitat heterogeneity, which increased with the mix of tree species. We conclude that understanding temporal and spatial species turnover is the key to understanding biodiversity patterns. Mono‐dominant beech stands are insufficient to conserve fully the regional species richness of the remaining semi‐natural deciduous forest habitats in Central Europe, and analysing beech alone would have resulted in the misleading conclusion that temporal (monthly) turnover contributes more to beetle diversity than spatial turnover among different tree species or tree individuals.