Spatial scale dependence of the species diversityin Tianmu Mountain and its relationship with spatial patterns by using multifractal analysis

This study took the Tianmu Mountain National Natural Preservation Area in western Zhejiang Province as an example 1) to quantify the species diversity with selected species indices including Shannon-Wiener index (H), Margalef index (K) and Evenness index (E) at different spatial scales, 2) to analyze the spatial distribution patterns of the species diversity by multifractal parameters such as the singularity index α, its fractal dimension f(α), the f(α)–α spectrum range (SR) and its symmetry (Dist) using the multifractal theory, and 3) to determine their relationships. Results of nonlinear regression analysis with power functions showed that increasing spatial scale resulted in increasing H but decreasing E and K, indicating that the scale dependence of species diversity existed. By using the multifractal method, it was indicated that species spatial distribution had multifractal features. Moreover, strong linear relationships of the diversity indices H, E and K with α_min and clear nonlinear associations of the diversity indices H, E and K with power functions for SR and Dist were found. Since interactions of the species diversity and the spatial characteristics are very complex, the above mentioned relationships need further validation along with precise explanations of any correlations among their ecological processes.     

天目山物种多样性尺度依赖及其与空间格局关系的多重分形

以浙江省天目山国家级自然保护区为例,采用多尺度分析思想,利用多重分形分析方法,研究了不同尺度下物种多样性的变化、空间分布格局以及多样性与空间格局之间的关系。研究主要得到3方面的结论：（1）物种多样性具有尺度依赖性,随着空间尺度的增大,Shannon-Wiener多样性指数Ⅳ增大,Margalef多样性指数足和均匀度指数E减小;（2）多重分形参数αmin。多重分形谱的变化范围SR等能够定量反映物种的空间分布特征,空间大尺度越大,物种越聚集,空间分布越不均匀;（3）物种多样性与空间格局存在线性或幂函数关系。研究表明多重分形分析定量描述物种空间格局是有效性的,多重分形参数与生物多样性之间的定量关系为研究物种空间格局、生态属性与尺度之间的关系奠定了基础。因此,分形结合传统方法,在生物多样性方面的研究将有很大的潜在价值。     

城市景观多样性的空间尺度分析——以上海市外环线以内区域为例

景观生态学研究的就是某一空间尺度范围内的景观格局与生态过程。因为景观格局与生态过程中存在的尺度多样性 ,导致尺度成为理解景观格局和生态过程相互作用的关键 ,其已经成为景观生态学的一个重要概念 ,但是由于理论和方法的限制 ,对景观生态学的尺度研究还不够 ,特别是景观格局综合性指标在不同幅度上的变化特征和效应。在 GIS与 RS技术支持下 ,采用基准分辨率为 5 m的 SPOT遥感图像作为数据源 ,对不同幅度下的城市景观多样性的空间分布格局进行了分析 ,并进一步利用半变异函数对其空间异质性进行定量描述。结论揭示 :随着空间尺度的增加 ,景观多样性程度也不断增加 ,另外多样性的空间分布格局也具有显著变化 ,由于受城市发展历史和目前城市扩展方向的影响 ,多样性在总体上是不平衡的 ,尺度越大 ,不平衡越明显 ;不同尺度下景观多样性空间格局的变化 ,与城市景观的特点和城市景观的功能息息相关 ,不过其受经济效益和社会文化效益的影响更大 ;随着尺度增加由于掩盖了更小尺度上的变异 ,导致块金效应增强 ,空间自相关部分对系统总的变异则明显下降 ;景观多样性具有尺度依赖性 ,可以说景观多样性也是尺度的函数 ,在不同的尺度上 ,结果差异显著 ,所以在景观生态学的研究中绝对不能忽略尺度对格局的影响     

天目山常绿阔叶林空间结构动态变化特征

采用固定样地重复监测的方法,2005-2015年每5年1次对天目山国家级自然保护区内1hm²常绿阔叶林固定样地进行3次样地调查,按优势度分析法确定群落优势树种,根据树种类别将优势树种分为常绿阔叶树种、常绿针叶树种和落叶阔叶树种3个优势树种组,利用聚集指数、树种多样性混交度和Hegyi竞争指数3个空间结构指数,分析群落和优势树种在2005-2015年期间的空间结构动态变化特征。结果表明：（1）群落表现为低度聚集、中度混交和中度竞争状态。群落聚集程度和竞争强度降低,混交程度保持稳定。群落空间结构动态变化总体特征是混交度稳定性最高,其次是分布格局,竞争态势稳定性最低。（2）群落优势种组成变化不大,3个优势树种组均呈低度聚集分布;常绿阔叶树种表现为低度混交、中度竞争状态;常绿针叶和落叶阔叶树种均表现为中度混交、低度竞争状态。常绿阔叶树种的聚集程度和竞争强度降低,混交程度保持稳定,与群落空间结构动态变化特征基本一致。常绿针叶和落叶阔叶树种的3种空间结构均保持稳定。在常绿阔叶林经营或人工林近自然改造过程中,应重视群落和优势树种的空间结构变化规律,确定阶段性空间结构优化目标,逐步促进群落进展演替。     

The alpha–beta–regional relationship: providing new insights into local–regional patterns of species richness and scale dependence of diversity components

Ecologists frequently regress local species richness on regional species richness to draw inferences about the processes that structure local communities. A more promising approach is to quantify the contributions of alpha and beta diversity to regional diversity (the ABR approach) using additive partitioning. We applied this approach to four local–regional relationships based on data from 583 arboreal beetle species collected in a hierarchically nested sampling design. All four local–regional relationships exhibited proportional sampling, yet the ABR approach indicated that each was produced by a different combination of alpha and beta richness. Using the results of the ABR analysis, we also analysed the scale dependence of alpha and beta using a hierarchical linear model. Alpha diversity contributed less than expected to regional diversity at the finest spatial scale and more than expected at the broadest spatial scale. A switch in relative dominance from beta to alpha diversity with increasing spatial scale suggested scale transitions in ecological processes. Analysing the scale dependence of diversity components using the ABR approach furthers our understanding about the additivity of species diversity in biological communities.     

辽东山区次生林物种多样性的空间分布及尺度效应

以辽东山区次生林为研究对象,分析4 hm²样地Gleason丰富度指数、Simpson优势度指数、Shannon多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数的空间分布特征及其与尺度的关系.结果表明: 4个多样性指数的空间分布均表现出较高的空间异质性;4个多样性指数的方差随尺度的增加其变化趋势有所差异;4个多样性指数的变异系数随尺度的增加呈下降趋势;乔木层的4个多样性指数值高于灌木层,且随尺度增加其变化趋势有所差异.在分析辽东山区次生林物种多样性时应考虑尺度效应.     

桂西北喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林物种多样性分布格局的尺度效应

物种多样性的空间分布格局及其与尺度的关系研究对于了解群落物种多样性形成机制具有重要意义。为了探讨喀斯特地区物种多样性空间分布格局的尺度效应,以喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林25 hm~2样地的(胸径DBH≥1)木本植物为研究对象,分析了6个空间尺度(5 m×5 m,10 m×10 m,20 m×20 m,50 m×50 m,100 m×100 m,250 m×250 m)上的多度、物种丰富度、Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数以及Pielou均匀度指数的变化规律。结果表明:物种多样性指数的空间分布均表现出较高的空间异质性;物种多样性指数的方差随取样尺度增加呈现单峰分布特征,并且在100 m×100 m尺度上达到最大值;物种多样性指数的变异系数随尺度的增加呈线性下降趋势,其中,Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数以及Pielou均匀度指数均在5 m×5 m至20 m×20 m尺度上明显减小;在大于50 m×50 m的尺度上,物种丰富度与多度的正相关性不显著(P0.05)。喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林物种多样性的空间分布格局与不同空间尺度密切相关,深入解析物种多样性随空间尺度的变化模式,需要在类似的森林生态系统做更多的研究。     

Local–regional diversity relationship varies with spatial scale in lotic diatoms

Aim Ecologists have shown increasing interest in the relative roles of local and regional factors in structuring biotic communities. One approach to studying this is to examine the relationship between local species richness (LSR) and regional species richness (RSR). We examined the LSR–RSR relationship in stream diatoms, using two data sets that varied in spatial extent. At broad spatial extent ranging across drainage systems, we expected climatic and dispersal‐related factors to constrain LSR, thus resulting in a linear LSR–RSR relationship. However, at small spatial scales dispersal across sites should be unconstrained, resulting in strong local interactions and a weak or asymptotic LSR–RSR relationship. Location Boreal streams in Finland. Methods For data set 1, we sampled 15 stream riffles (localities) in each of eight drainage systems (regions), with the latitudinal gradient between the southernmost and northernmost sites being almost 1100 km. For data set 2, a locality for estimating LSR was a single stone, and each riffle represented a region for estimating RSR. We sampled 20 stones in each of eight riffles. We used linear regressions to examine the relationship between LSR and RSR across regions. We used both observed richness values, as well as values estimated with the Chao1 estimator. Results We found a relatively strong linear relationship between the Chao1‐estimated mean LSR and RSR (R² = 0.654, P = 0.015) across drainage systems. The slope of the regression was 0.643 and it did not differ from 1.0, thus indicating linearity. At the riffle scale, however, LSR and RSR were not linearly related, and the slope of the regression (0.039) differed significantly from 1.0, indicating curvilinearity. Main conclusions These results suggest that the relationship between mean LSR and RSR varies across spatial scales in diatoms – from significantly linear at large scales to curvilinear at small scales. These plots imply strong regional enrichment in stream diatoms across drainage systems. Their diversity is thus determined largely by the composition of the regional species pool, as also in many macroorganisms. In contrast, at small spatial scales the LSR–RSR relationship implied a hard limit to local diversity, reflecting the primacy of local processes.     

Spatial patterns of invertebrate species richness in a river: the relationship between riffles and microhabitats

This study describes the pattern of invertebrate species richness in a river reach with large differences in habitat complexity at two, hierarchically nested, spatial scales. The aim was to determine whether the mass effect was likely to be increasing invertebrate species richness in epilithic microhabitats in this river. The mass effect is the process by which the species richness of a patch is increased when it acts as a ‘sink’ for species generated by ‘source’ patches. Microhabitat patch types in Mountain River, Tasmania, were distinguished on the basis of physical structure and orientation on the river bed. They were nested within two types of riffle with contrasting structural complexity: bedrock and boulder-cobble riffles. It was hypothesized that microhabitats with high species richness would act as source patches, contributing species to other microhabitats (sinks) and thereby increasing their species richness. Microhabitat sampling was carried out in four consecutive seasons and rarefaction was used to estimate riffle-scale species richness. Analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) was used to compare the identical microhabitats present in the contrasting riffle types, to detect evidence of the mass effect in either riffle type. The more structurally complex boulder-cobble riffles had higher species richness than did bedrock riffles. Amongst the microhabitats, the spaces beneath the cobbles had the most species. Microhabitats accounted for a higher percentage of the variation in species richness than did differences between riffles of the same type. No evidence was found for the operation of the mass effect in either riffle type. The majority of species found only in boulder-cobble riffles were unique to the beneath-cobble microhabitat and appeared to be unable to colonize other microhabitats, even as transients. In Mountain River, small-scale habitat characteristics appeared to be more important than larger-scale effects in determining microhabitat species richness.     

福建中亚热带常绿阔叶林物种多样性的空间格局

对福建中亚热带不同区域、不同海拔梯度的常绿阔叶林群落进行物种多样性测定 ,结果表明 :(1 )在 6个区域中 ,乔木层的物种多样性指数平均值高于灌木层的平均值 ;对丰富度指数 ,太平乔、灌木层 (R1、R2 )最高 ,茂地 (R1、R2 )最低 ;对多样性指数 ,乔木层夏道 (D1、H1)最高 ,土堡 (D1)、茂地 (H1)分别最低 ,灌木层峡阳(D2 )、大洋 (H2 )分别最高 ,太平 (D2 、H2 )最低 ;对均匀度指数 ,乔木层中茂地 (E1、J1)最高 ,土堡 (E1、J1)最低 ,灌木层峡阳 (E2 )、大洋 (J2 )分别最高 ,太平 (E2 、J2 )最低 ;不同区域乔木层的物种多样性指数曲线变化比灌木层缓和 ;(2 )在 6个海拔梯度群落 ,对乔木层物种数和丰富度指数在海拔 2 0 0～ 40 0m(S1、R1)最高 ,对灌木层在海拔 60 0～ 80 0m(S1、R1)最高 ;对乔、灌木层物种数和丰富度指数在海拔 1 0 0 0～ 1 2 0 0m(S1、S2 、R1、R2 )最低 ;对多样性指数 ,在乔木层中在海拔 2 0 0～ 40 0m(D1、H1)最高 ,在海拔 80 0～ 1 0 0 0m(D1、H1)最低 ,在灌木层中在海拔 60 0～ 80 0m(D2 、H2 )最高 ,海拔 80 0～ 1 0 0 0m(D2 、H2 )最低 ;对均匀度指数 ,乔木层中在海拔 10 0 0～ 1 2 0 0m(E1、J1)最高 ,在海拔 80 0～ 1 0 0 0m(E1、J1)最低 ,灌木层中在海拔 1 0 0 0～ 1 2 0 0m(E2 )     

The influence of spatial scale on cross-taxon congruence patterns and prediction accuracy of species richness

A comparison of species richness patterns of butterflies and birds was made using data from two grids of squares (small squares 137.5 km on a side and large squares 275 km on a side) covering western North America. Using geostatistical procedures, we found that the spatial patterns of species richness of these two taxa were related. The influence of grain size on the strength of this relationship was investigated by analysing the two data sets. For both data sets, the number of butterfly species in a square was a statistically significant predictor of the corresponding number of bird species. However, cross-validation techniques showed that the marginal improvement in prediction accuracy due to including butterflies as a predictor was greater in the large-square data. We explored the effect of areal extent on cross-taxon congruencies by investigating species richness patterns in four subsets of the small-square data. In regions with smaller areal extent, the cross-taxon congruence patterns were not substantially different from the pattern found in the full data set. Finally, using data-splitting techniques, we explored the relationships between prediction accuracy of species richness, sample size, areal extent of the sample, and grain size.     

The number of species occurring in a sample of a biotic community and its connections with species-abundance relationship and spatial distribution

Connections among species-abundance (i-m _i ), species-frequency (i-F _i ), and species-sample size (S _n -n) relationships were examined on the basis of the mapping data of a natural forest in Thailand. The spatial distribution of individual trees without any discrimination of species was nearly random. Provided that the spatial distribution of each species was random, thei-m _i and thei-F _i relationship was reconstructed from each other in terms of the total number of species (S) and the total number of individuals (N) in the data. The number of species (S _n ) in a subsample consisting ofn individuals was then obtained from thei-F _i relationship. Logarithm ofS _n increased with logn and showed a convex curve through the origin. The values of diversity indices based onN andS(orn andS _n ) were affected by sample size. These trends were further examined on the basis of 944 data sets of biotic communities and three mathematical models of anS-N relationship. The properties of species-area relation were discussed in the light of these results.     

木林子大样地两个木姜子属物种空间分布格局及关联性

该文以湖北木林子国家级自然保护区15 hm2大样地同属物种[木姜子(Litsea pungens)和黄丹木姜子(L.elongata)]为研究对象,通过成对相关函数和不同零模型(完全空间随机模型、异质泊松模型和先决条件模型)的方法分析两个物种的空间分布格局、种内和种间空间关联性,从同属物种的空间分布格局角度探讨群落的构...     

Modelling geographical patterns in species richness using eigenvector-based spatial filters

Aim To test the mechanisms driving bird species richness at broad spatial scales using eigenvector‐based spatial filtering. Location South America. Methods An eigenvector‐based spatial filtering was applied to evaluate spatial patterns in South American bird species richness, taking into account spatial autocorrelation in the data. The method consists of using the geographical coordinates of a region, based on eigenanalyses of geographical distances, to establish a set of spatial filters (eigenvectors) expressing the spatial structure of the region at different spatial scales. These filters can then be used as predictors in multiple and partial regression analyses, taking into account spatial autocorrelation. Autocorrelation in filters and in the regression residuals can be used as stopping rules to define which filters will be used in the analyses. Results Environmental component alone explained 8% of variation in richness, whereas 77% of the variation could be attributed to an interaction between environment and geography expressed by the filters (which include mainly broad‐scale climatic factors). Regression coefficients of environmental component were highest for AET. These results were unbiased by short‐scale spatial autocorrelation. Also, there was a significant interaction between topographic heterogeneity and minimum temperature. Conclusion Eigenvector‐based spatial filtering is a simple and suitable statistical protocol that can be used to analyse patterns in species richness taking into account spatial autocorrelation at different spatial scales. The results for South American birds are consistent with the climatic hypothesis, in general, and energy hypothesis, in particular. Habitat heterogeneity also has a significant effect on variation in species richness in warm tropical regions.     

基于多光谱影像的森林树种识别及其空间尺度响应

当前,不同空间分辨率卫星影像对森林类型识别结果中普遍存在的尺度效应,而且纹理参量对不同尺度下树种识别精度的影响仍缺乏广泛认知.本研究以中国东北旺业甸林场为研究区,采用观测时相同步、地理坐标匹配的GF-1 PMS、GF-2 PMS、GF-1 WFV,以及Landsat-8 OLI卫星传感器数据组成空间尺度观测序列(1、2、4、8、16、30 m),并结合支持向量机(SVM)模型,探讨了区域内5种优势树种遥感识别结果的尺度变化规律及其纹理特征参数的影响,同时检验了基于尺度上推转换影像的树种识别结果差异.结果表明: 影像空间分辨率对区域树种识别结果具有显著影响,其中,研究区森林树种识别的最佳影像分辨率为4 m,当分辨率降低至30 m时,树种识别结果最差.在1～8 m影像分辨率范围内,增加纹理信息能够显著提高不同优势树种的识别精度,使总分类精度提升了2.0%～3.6%,但纹理信息对16～30 m影像的识别结果没有显著影响.与真实尺度卫星影像相比,基于升尺度转换影像的树种识别结果及其尺度响应特征存在显著差异,表明在面向多个空间尺度的遥感观测和应用研究中,需要采用真实分辨率影像以确保结果的准确性.     

Scale-dependent spatial patterns of species diversity in the tropical montane rain forest in Jianfengling,Hainan Island,China

Aims Spatial distribution patterns and formation mechanisms of species diversity are fundamental issues in community ecology. The objectives of this study are to assess the species diversity patterns at the different spatial scales in Jianfengling, Hainan Island, China.
Methods Based on the dataset from the 60 hm² plot in the tropical montane rain forest in Jianfengling, Hainan Island, the spatial distribution patterns of species richness, species abundance, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson and Pielou’s evenness indices were analyzed at six spatial scales, including 5 m × 5 m, 10 m × 10 m, 20 m × 20 m, 40 m × 40 m, 100 m × 100 m, and 200 m × 200 m, respectively.Important findings
Results showed that spatial distribution patterns of species richness, species abundance and Shannon-Wiener index were much more obviously changed with the spatial scales than Simpson and Pielou’s evenness indices. Change of variance of the species richness with the increase of spatial scales was unimodal, which had the maximum value at the 20 m × 20 m scale. Variance of the species abundance showed a linear relationship with the increase of spatial scales. The positive relationship between species richness and abundance gradually decreased and even disappeared with the increase of sampling scales, which may be correlated with the increase of habitat heterogeneity. The effects of spatial scales on Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, and Pielou’s evenness indices may be also correlated with the composition of rare species in the plot.     

The role of spatial scale and the perception of large-scale species-richness patterns

Despite two centuries of exploration, our understanding of factors determining the distribution of life on Earth is in many ways still in its infancy. Much of the disagreement about governing processes of variation in species richness may be the result of differences in our perception of species‐richness patterns. Until recently, most studies of large‐scale species‐richness patterns assumed implicitly that patterns and mechanisms were scale invariant. Illustrated with examples and a quantitative analysis of published data on altitudinal gradients of species richness (n = 204), this review discusses how scale effects (extent and grain size) can influence our perception of patterns and processes. For example, a hump‐shaped altitudinal species‐richness pattern is the most typical (c. 50%), with a monotonic decreasing pattern (c. 25%) also frequently reported, but the relative distribution of patterns changes readily with spatial grain and extent. If we are to attribute relative impact to various factors influencing species richness and distribution and to decide at which point along a spatial and temporal continuum they act, we should not ask only how results vary as a function of scale but also search for consistent patterns in these scale effects. The review concludes with suggestions of potential routes for future analytical exploration of species‐richness patterns.