Newly discovered Bale monkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopia: evidence of crop raiding, hybridization with grivets, and other conservation threats

Until recently, the Bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis), an arboreal primate endemic to the southern Ethiopian highlands, remained virtually unstudied, and its distribution pattern inadequately documented. To broaden our knowledge of the species' distribution and abundance, we carried out interviews with local people and total count surveys for Bale monkeys across 67 fragmented forest sites in human-dominated landscapes in the Oromia and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Regions, Ethiopia. From January 2010 to May 2011, we discovered 26 new Bale monkey populations inhabiting forest fragments at elevations ranging from 2,355 to 3,204 m asl. Across these populations, we recorded 37 groups ranging in size from 9 to 29 individuals (Mean = 19.5, SD = 4.5), for a total of 722 individuals. Black-and-white colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) were sympatric with Bale monkeys at all sites, while grivet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) were found only at sites where Bale monkeys did not occur. All of the newly discovered Bale monkey sites once contained bamboo forest, though at 35% of the sites bamboo forest had been eliminated during the past two decades. The persistence of Bale monkeys at fragmented sites lacking bamboo suggests greater habitat flexibility for the species than previously thought, though the long-term viability of populations both with and without bamboo remains uncertain. Human hunting in response to crop raiding, a behavior the monkeys engaged in at all sites, represents a major threat facing the newly discovered Bale monkey populations. Furthermore, despite their current lack of sympatry, apparently hybrid individuals between Bale monkeys and grivets were noted at three sites, posing yet another potential obstacle to Bale monkey conservation. Community conservation programs aimed at (1) protecting remaining habitat fragments, (2) planting bamboo and trees within and between fragments, and (3) reducing crop raiding represent the only hope for survival of the newly discovered Bale monkey populations.     

Trait variation in juvenile plants from the soil seed bank of temperate forests in relation to macro- and microclimate

Aim

The soil seed bank is a key component of the biodiversity of plant communities, but various aspects of its functioning in temperate forest ecosystems are still unknown. We here adopted a trait-based approach to investigate the effects of macro- and microclimatic gradients on the juvenile plant communities from the realized seed bank of two types of European temperate forest.

Location

Oak-dominated forests in Italy and Belgium.

Methods

We analysed the variation of key functional traits (plant height, leaf area, leaf dry weight, specific leaf area and leaf number) of juvenile plants from the realised soil seed bank in relation to elevation (from 0 to 800 m a.s.l.), forest type (thinned and unthinned forest) and distance to the forest edge. We translocated soil samples from the forest core to the edge (and vice versa) and from high- to low-elevation forests to test the effects of edge and warming respectively.

Results

Taller communities developed at the forest edge due to higher light availability and warmer temperatures. The translocation from the core to the edge did not significantly modify mean trait values. Instead, the shadier and cooler microclimate of the forest core reduced the mean leaf area, mean dry weight, height and leaf number in the communities realised from the edge soil. The translocation from high- to lowland forests led to increased values for all traits (except specific leaf area). Edge vs core trait variation was more driven by intraspecific variability, whereas the translocation from high- to low-elevation forests caused trait changes mostly due to species turnover.

Conclusions

Global warming might result in a functional shift of the understorey due to both an early filtering effect on the seedlings from soil seed banks and their adaptive trait adjustments to temperature increase. Furthermore, our study underpins the importance of edge vs core microclimate in driving the functional composition of the realised soil seed bank.     

Path analysis of standing crop and environmental variables in the field layer of two Belgian riverine forests

Seasonal variation in standing crop, litter, pH and relative light intensity was measured in the field layer of two riverine forests near Bruges, Belgium. At each site the living fraction in 10 randomly selected 0.25 m² quadrats was separated into various components and graphed in relation to the environmental variables. The effect of the environmental variables on standing crop was assessed using path analysis, based on the standardized partial regression coefficients obtained in separate stepwise multiple regressions. In order to linearize the relation between the standing crop and the environmental variables, and to meet other statistical assumptions, a log-transformation was applied to the standing crop data. On an annual basis, 44% of the total variation in log-standing crop was explained by the variables litter, relative light intensity and pH, while seasonally the coefficient of determination ranged from 0.23 (November) to 0.72 (April). A general path diagram, based on all data, indicated predominant direct effect of litter (path coefficient: ?0.55) and pH (0.26). Relative light intensity had only an indirect effect through its impact on litter and pH. Considerable seasonal changes occurred in the importance of litter, relative light intensity and pH.     

Differential effects of ecosystem engineering by the superb lyrebird Menura novaehollandiae and herbivory by large mammals on floristic regeneration and structure in wet eucalypt forests

Ecosystem engineers that modify the soil and ground‐layer properties exert a strong influence on vegetation communities in ecosystems worldwide. Understanding the interactions between animal engineers and vegetation is challenging when in the presence of large herbivores, as many vegetation communities are simultaneously affected by both engineering and herbivory. The superb lyrebird Menura novaehollandiae, an ecosystem engineer in wet forests of south‐eastern Australia, extensively modifies litter and soil on the forest floor. The aim of this study was to disentangle the impacts of engineering by lyrebirds and herbivory by large mammals on the composition and structure of ground‐layer vegetation. We carried out a 2‐year, manipulative exclusion experiment in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. We compared three treatments: fenced plots with simulated lyrebird foraging; fenced plots excluding herbivores and lyrebirds; and open controls. This design allowed assessment of the relative impacts of engineering and herbivory on germination rates, seedling density, vegetation cover and structure, and community composition. Engineering by lyrebirds enhanced the germination of seeds in the litter layer. After 2 years, more than double the number of germinants were present in “engineered” than “non‐engineered” plots. Engineering did not affect the density of seedlings, but herbivory had strong detrimental effects. Herbivory also reduced the floristic richness and structural complexity (<0.5 m) of forest vegetation, including the cover of herbs. Neither process altered the floristic composition of the vegetation within the 2‐year study period. Ecosystem engineering by lyrebirds and herbivory by large mammals both influence the structure of forest‐floor vegetation. The twofold increase in seeds stimulated to germinate by engineering may contribute to the evolutionary adaptation of plants by allowing greater phenotypic expression and selection than would otherwise occur. Over long timescales, engineering and herbivory likely combine to maintain a more‐open forest floor conducive to ongoing ecosystem engineering by lyrebirds.     

Causes of the large variation in bryophyte species richness and composition among boreal streamside forests

Questions: Boreal forests along small streams are bryophyte diversity hotspots because they are moist, productive and relatively high pH. Do these factors also explain the large differences in species richness and species composition found among streamside sites? Do the species of species‐poor sites represent nested subsets of the species of more species‐rich sites? How do the results apply to conservation? Location: Forests along small streams in mid‐boreal Sweden. Methods: Survey of the flora of liverworts and mosses and habitat properties, including calculation of a pH‐index based on species indicator values, in 37 sites (1000‐m² plots). Results: The number of bryophyte species per plot ranged from 34 to 125. Neither soil moisture nor basal area of trees (a proxy for productivity) correlated significantly with species richness and composition, whereas pH‐index and cover of boulders did. Species richness and composition were more strongly correlated with pH‐index for mosses than for liverworts. The richness and composition of bryophyte species most frequently found on moist ground, stream channel margins and, most unexpected, woody debris were all more strongly associated with the pH‐index than with other habitat properties. Although species composition was significantly nested, there was still some turnover of species along the first ordination axis. Conclusions To attain high numbers of species, streamside forests need to have boulders and at least pockets with higher soil and stream‐water pH. The number of Red list species was weakly correlated with total species richness and the most species‐rich sites contained many species found more in non‐forest habitats. Hence, bryophyte conservation in streamside forests should not focus on species‐rich sites but on the quality and quantity of substrate available for assemblages of forest species that are strongly disfavoured by forestry.     

Phylogeography of the heathers Erica arborea and E. trimera in the afro-alpine ‘sky islands’ inferred from AFLPs and plastid DNA sequences

The ericaceous vegetation zone of the unique and highly fragmented afro-alpine environment in the eastern African high mountains is typically dominated by the heather Erica arborea, often in combination with its close relative E. trimera. Both species are shrubs or small trees with tiny seeds, potentially capable of dispersal by wind over long distances. While E. arborea is widely distributed in Africa, the Middle East and Europe, E. trimera is endemic to the afro-alpine region where it is restricted to higher altitudes than E. arborea. We used Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs) and variation in non-coding plastid DNA sequences to test whether these two morphologically and ecologically very similar species display similar phylogeographic patterns in the afro-alpine region. We predict that the more high-altitudinal E. trimera shows more distinct genetic structuring than E. arborea, because dispersal of the latter may have been facilitated by formation of interglacial forest bridges between mountains. Based on extensive field sampling in most of the high mountains of Ethiopia and East Africa, we show that the two species are clearly distinct at AFLP and plastid DNA loci. Both showed low levels of overall AFLP diversity, suggesting bottlenecking in small refugial populations during unfavourable climatic periods. However, their genetic structuring and inferred phylogeographic histories were conspicuously different. The more high-altitudinal E. trimera consisted of three to four distinct AFLP groups, which also had different plastid DNA haplotypes and different geographic distributions, suggesting long-term restriction to several refugia (at least one in Ethiopia and two in East Africa). In contrast, E. arborea showed little geographic structuring at AFLP loci and only a single, widespread plastid DNA haplotype, which may suggest recent colonization of the entire study area from a single source population, likely via a combination of gradual expansion via forest bridges and long-distance dispersals. The source population of E. arborea may be situated in (or north of) Ethiopia, which harbours most genetic diversity.     

Ancient forests and grasslands in the desert: Diet and habitat of Late Pleistocene mammals from Northcentral Sonora, Mexico

Despite high taxonomic diversity elsewhere in North America during the Pleistocene, vertebrate faunas are exceedingly rare in the region of northern Mexico. Térapa, a unique fossil site located in the present-day desert of Northcentral Sonora, Mexico (29°41′N, 109°39′W, 605 m elevation), contributes to our understanding of the paleoecology and paleoclimate of the region during the Late Pleistocene, ca. 43,000-40,000 cal. yr BP. At least 60 vertebrate taxa, including amphibians, turtles, a crocodilian, snakes, birds and many mammals, have been recovered from an 11-m thick sequence of fossiliferous sediments. The diversity and tropical affinity of these taxa suggest a more-forested environment than the thornscrub desert habitat present in this region today.Isotopic analyses of tooth enamel carbonate from ancient mammalian herbivores suggest that the Sonoran desert has undergone considerable climate change since the Late Pleistocene. Bulk carbon (δ¹³C) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotopes from nine mammalian fossils indicate a habitat mosaic with variations in diet that include browsers, mixed feeders and C4 hyper-grazers (δ¹³C range of − 10‰ to 2‰). Unique to this site are δ¹³C tooth enamel values of − 6.1 and − 5.6 ‰ for the deer Odocoileus, which suggest a more variable diet than strict browsing, including possibly feeding on CAM and/or C4 plants. Serial sampling of carbon (δ¹³C) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotopes for ancient mammal teeth with hypsodont dentitions (fossil Equus and Bison,) as well as δ¹⁸O meteroric water estimates from well-supported climatic models suggest a cooler and more equable environment at Térapa during the Late Pleistocene. These results also support previous habitat reconstructions inferred from the macrobotanical and packrat midden records of northern Sonora (Mexico). High-resolution stable isotope geochemistry indicates that: 1) ancient Térapa was covered with forest and grassland habitats that extended northward into Mexico by about 350 km relative to their present-day northern limits during the Late Pleistocene; and 2) an Amount Effect (AE) is demonstrated in the fossil record at Térapa even though the climate was less seasonal compared to the modern desert habitat.     

贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区野猪危害特征与居民态度分析

野猪对农作物的危害是当前人与野生动物冲突的典型案例,分析其危害特征,掌握当地居民对野猪危害与保护管理的态度,对于自然保护区社区共管与野生动物保护管理决策尤为重要。对贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区的调查研究发现,野猪一年四季均危害农作物,危害高峰期在 2-4 月与10-12 月,主要受作物收获期影响;农耕地在保护区的位置、距道路距离及距水源距离显著影响野猪对农耕地的危害,农耕地距道路(< 55 m)和水源越近(< 270 m),遭受危害程度越高。保护区的实验区和周边区域人居活动强烈,但野猪危害较其他区域严重,野猪危害农地时对水源因素较距居民点距离、距林缘距离、隐蔽因素更为敏感。70% 的当地居民认为野猪危害是由于种群数量过多引起。55% 的当地居民不赞同国家保护野猪的政策,62% 的赞同猎杀野猪控制其种群数量增长。受访者年龄与野猪危害程度两因素显著影响居民对野猪的容忍度,50 - 70 岁是当地社区居民的主要人群,也是态度中立及容忍度较高的人群。为有效减少野猪危害损失,调和人与野生动物冲突矛盾,建议保护区管理者根据野猪危害特征,帮助当地居民建立有效防控措施和有效快速的危害评估与损失补偿机制,同时根据当地居民的态度特征,做好保护政策的宣教工作。     

Habitat-specific composition of morphotypes with low genetic diversity in the green algal genus Klebsormidium (Streptophyta) isolated from biological soil crusts in Central European grasslands and forests

Terrestrial filamentous green algae of the widely distributed, cosmopolitan genus Klebsormidium (Klebsormidiophyceae, Streptophyta) are typical components of biological soil crusts (BSCs). These communities occur in all climatic zones and on all continents, where soil moisture is limited or where there has been disturbance. BSCs form water-stable aggregates that have important ecological roles in primary production, nitrogen fixation, nutrient cycling, water retention and stabilization of soils. Although available data on Klebsormidium are limited, its functional importance in BSCs is regarded as high. Therefore, in the present study Klebsormidium strains were isolated from BSCs sampled from various grassland and forest plots of different land use intensities in Central Europe, as provided by the Biodiversity Exploratories, and its intraspecific genetic diversity was evaluated. Previous phylogenetic analyses revealed a relationship between sequence similarity and habitat preference with a higher genetic diversity than expected from a morphological classification. We isolated and sequenced 75 Klebsormidium strains. The molecular phylogeny based on the ITS regions showed that all strains belong to either the previously described clade B/C or clade E. This classification was supported by morphological characteristics: strains assigned to clade B/C were identified as Klebsormidium cf. flaccidum or Klebsormidium cf. dissectum, and strains from clade E as K. nitens or Klebsormidium cf. subtile. Within one clade the strains showed low sequence divergences. These minor differences were independent of the sampling region and land use intensity. Interestingly, most of the strains assigned to clade E were isolated from forest sites, whereas strains from clade B/C occurred equally in grassland and forest sites. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that habitat with its microenvironmental conditions, and not biogeography, controls genetic diversity in Klebsormidium.     

Contamination of malt barley and wheat by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum from the crop years 2001-2003 in eastern Croatia

This study investigated infection levels with Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum in malt barley and wheat in eastern Croatia. The contamination was surveyed over three consecutive crop years (2001–2003) on five locations for barley and three wheat cultivating locations. F. graminearum loads reached levels of potentially serious threat for the commercial production of malting raw materials in both cereals (up to 29.1%). On the other hand, the mean percentage of kernels infected with F. culmorum was low to medium (up to 6.1%). The fungal invasions for years and locations were affected by meteorologic and other environmental factors and the pattern seemed to be consistent with species-specific optimal conditions reported by other authors.     

Distribution Pattern of Metorphamide Compared with Other Opioid Peptides from Proenkephalin and Prodynorphin in the Bovine Brain

Metorphamide is a [Met]-enkephalin-containing opioid octapeptide with a C-terminal alpha-amide group. It is derived from proenkephalin and is, so far, the only endogenous opioid peptide with a particularly high affinity for mu opioid (morphine) receptors, a somewhat lesser affinity for kappa opioid receptors, and a relatively low affinity for delta opioid receptors. The concentrations of metorphamide in the bovine caudate nucleus, the hypothalamus, the spinal cord, and the neurointermediate pituitary were determined by radioimmunoassay and chromatography separation procedures. Metorphamide concentrations were compared with the concentrations of eight other opioid peptides from proenkephalin and prodynorphin in identical extracts. The other opioid peptides were [Met]-enkephalyl-Arg6-Phe7 and [Met]-enkephalyl-Arg6-Gly7-Leu8 from proenkephalin; alpha-neoendorphin, beta-neoendorphin, dynorphin A(1-8), dynorphin A(1-17), and dynorphin B from prodynorphin; and [Leu]-enkephalin, which can be derived from either precursor. All opioid peptides were present in all four bovine neural tissues investigated. Metorphamide concentrations were lower than the concentrations of the other proenkephalin-derived opioid peptides. They were, however, similar to the concentrations of the prodynorphin-derived opioid peptides in the same tissues. Marked differences in the relative ratios of the opioids derived from prodynorphin across brain regions were observed, a finding suggesting differential posttranslational processing. Differences in the ratios of the proenkephalin-derived opioids across brain regions were less pronounced. The results from this study together with previous findings on metorphamide's mu opioid receptor binding and bioactivities suggest that the amounts of metorphamide in the bovine brain are sufficient to make this peptide a candidate for a physiologically significant endogenous mu opioid receptor ligand.     

Revision of Pseudocorinna Simon and a new related genus (Araneae: Corinnidae): two more examples of spider templates with a large range of complexity in the genitalia

The genus Pseudocorinna Simon, 1910 is revised. The type species Pseudocorinna rutila Simon, 1910 from Guinea‐Bissau and Pseudocorinna septemaculeata Simon, 1910 from Bioko are redescribed. No material could be found of Pseudocorinna gracilior Simon, 1910 from Bioko which is to be considered nomen dubium. The genus further contains 27 species which are described as new: Pseudocorinna alligator, Pseudocorinna amicorum, Pseudocorinna amphibia, Pseudocorinna banco, Pseudocorinna bilobata, Pseudocorinna brianeno, Pseudocorinna celisi, Pseudocorinna christae, Pseudocorinna cymarum, Pseudocorinna doutreleponti, Pseudocorinna eruca, Pseudocorinna evertsi, Pseudocorinna febe, Pseudocorinna felix, Pseudocorinna gevaertsi, Pseudocorinna incisa, Pseudocorinna juakalyi, Pseudocorinna lanius, Pseudocorinna lobelia, Pseudocorinna natalis, Pseudocorinna naufraga, Pseudocorinna okupe, Pseudocorinna orientalis, Pseudocorinna perplexa, Pseudocorinna personata, Pseudocorinna ubicki, and Pseudocorinna victoria. The genus is characterized by the wide carapace and sternum and the dense network of dark warts on all sclerites of the prosoma. These structures are apparently outlets of underlying glands producing a gel‐like substance. The genus is restricted to the West and Central African forest area, ranging from Guinea‐Bissau to the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The species are mainly found in very wet, temporarily inundated forests. A cladistic analysis strongly supported the erection of a new, closely related genus, Crinopseudoa gen. nov. , with very similar habitus but with poorly developed warts that have kept their original hair‐socket function. This genus contains 11 species, all of which are new, and has a distribution restricted to the West‐African refuge areas around Liberia and Cameroon. The type species is Crinopseudoa bong from Liberia. It further contains Crinopseudoa billeni, Crinopseudoa bongella, Crinopseudoa caligula, Crinopseudoa catharinae, Crinopseudoa ephialtes, Crinopseudoa flomoi, Crinopseudoa leiothorax, Crinopseudoa otus, Crinopseudoa paucigranulata, and Crinopseudoa titan. Both genera can be regarded as examples of successful somatic templates with a large range of morphologically different genitalia corroborating the ‘mate check’ hypothesis. Illustrated keys to the species of both genera are provided. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 162 , 271–350.     

Removal of settled sediments and periphyton from macrophytes by grazing invertebrates in the littoral zone of a large oligotrophic lake

• 1 The resistance and resilience of littoral zone communities to sedimentation will depend both on the extent to which sediment deposition affects productivity, and on interactions within the communities. A series of hypotheses were set up and tested to examine interactions and feedback mechanisms among deposited sediments, periphyton, macrophytes and grazers in a large oligotrophic lake subject to fluctuating sediment loadings.
• 2 Although sediments incorporated into periphyton reduced light availability to macrophytes, periphytic algae were generally the dominant light absorbing component under natural conditions. When grazers were absent, both sediments incorporated in the periphyton and periphytic algal densities increased, and both were then important in reducing light available to macrophytes.
• 3 Grazing rate and assimilation efficiency for the dominant grazer, the prosobranch gastropod Potamopyrgus antipodarum, increased with increasing sediment content under natural lake conditions to reach a maximum at 10 mg sediment cm^?2.
• 4 An increase in sediment incorporation into periphyton films resulted in an increased grazing rate and hence grooming of sediments from macrophytes.
• 5 Grazing invertebrates can play a major role in maintenance of littoral communities by continuously grooming macrophyte hosts of periphytic algae and settled sediments.

     

Isolation of a large glycopeptide from cartilage procollagen by collagenase digestion and evidence indicating the presence of glucose, galactose and mannose in the peptide.

Digestion of cartilage procollagen, pro-α1(II), with bacterial collagenase followed by fractionation of Sephadex G-150 yielded a large glycopeptide (molecular weight 13,200) which could not be demonstrated in a similarly prepared digest of α1(II) chain. Isotopic studies suggested that this glycopeptide contained, in addition to glucose and galactose, mannose, a sugar that is not found in the authentic α-chain of cartilage. The results imply that in pro-α1(II) there is a glycopeptide region differing from the α1(II) chain in amino acid composition and also in the type of carbohydrates attached.     

Aneuploidy in metaphases II of spermatocytes of wild house mice from a hybrid zone between a Robertsonian population (CD: 2n = 22) and a population with the standard karyotype (2n = 40)

Meiotic metaphases II from archival slides were studied of male house mice caught in a hybrid zone between a population monomorphic for nine centric fusions (2n = 22) and a population with the standard karyotype (2n = 40), near Rome. The frequency of aneuploidy increases, up to 50%, with increasing number of heterozygous centric fusions (1–4). This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Phosphorylated Glycans Produced from Nonreducing Mono- and Oligosaccharides by the Action of P2O5 in Dimethyl Sulfoxide,and Their Interactions with Concanavalin A

The action of P₂O₅ in DMSO on methyl α-d-glucopyranoside, sucrose and trehalose afforded nondializable, phosphorylated glycans in 6~34% yields. Polysucrose has a molecular weight of ~9,500. The synthetic glycans consist of carbohydrate (46~59%) and P (11.4~13.1%) and show reducing sugar values (5.0~30.8%). The alkaline hydrolysis of polysucrose was accompanied with a depolymerization and afforded sugar phosphates and oligosaccharides. The periodate oxidation gave formic acid (0.15~0.34 mole) and formaldehyde (0.07~0.17 mole/monosaccharide residue). The methylation study indicated their variously branched structures. 2,3,4,6-Tetra-O-methyl-d-glucose was found in only 0.7 ~3.2% yields, and this is in agreement with their weak precipitation reactions with Con A. It is considered that the glycans are produced from nonreducing mono- and oligosaccharides by dehydration, transglycosidation and esterification with phosphate.     

New N-acyl-d-glucosamine 2-epimerases from cyanobacteria with high activity in the absence of ATP and low inhibition by pyruvate

N-Acetylneuraminic acid, an important component of glycoconjugates with various biological functions, can be produced from N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc) and pyruvate using a one-pot, two-enzyme system consisting of N-acyl-d-glucosamine 2-epimerase (AGE) and N-acetylneuraminate lyase (NAL). In this system, the epimerase catalyzes the conversion of GlcNAc into N-acetyl-d-mannosamine (ManNAc). However, all currently known AGEs have one or more disadvantages, such as a low specific activity, substantial inhibition by pyruvate and strong dependence on allosteric activation by ATP. Therefore, four novel AGEs from the cyanobacteria Acaryochloris marina MBIC 11017, Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413, Nostoc sp. PCC 7120, and Nostoc punctiforme PCC 73102 were characterized. Among these enzymes, the AGE from the Anabaena strain showed the most beneficial characteristics. It had a high specific activity of 117 ± 2 U mg⁻¹ at 37 °C (pH 7.5) and an up to 10-fold higher inhibition constant for pyruvate as compared to other AGEs indicating a much weaker inhibitory effect. The investigation of the influence of ATP revealed that the nucleotide has a more pronounced effect on the K_m for the substrate than on the enzyme activity. At high substrate concentrations (≥200 mM) and without ATP, the enzyme reached up to 32% of the activity measured with ATP in excess.     

A study on the determination of risk factors associated with babesiosis and prevalence of Babesia sp., by PCR amplification, in small ruminants from Southern Punjab (Pakistan)

Babesiosis is a parasitic infection due to the multiplication of tick borne parasite, Babesia sp., in erythrocytes of host, which includes a wide variety of vertebrates including small ruminants causing decreased livestock output and hence economic losses. The objective of the present study was to establish a PCR based method for the detection of Babesia sp. in small ruminant population in Southern Punjab and to determine the risk factors involve in the spread of babesiosis. A total of 107 blood samples were collected from 40 sheep and 67 goats in seven districts of Southern Punjab from randomly selected herds. Data on the characteristics of the animals and the herd were collected through questionnaires. 36 blood samples (34% of total) produced the DNA fragment specific for 18S rRNA gene of Babesia sp., by PCR amplification, of which 20 were sheep and 16 were goats. Samples from all seven district contained Babesia positive samples and prevalence varied between 18 to 68%. It was observed that male animals (P = 0.009) and young animals under one year of age (P = 0.01) were more prone to the parasite. It was observed that herds consist of more than 15 animals (P = 0.007), composed of mixed species of small ruminants (P = 0.022), associated with dogs (P = 0.003) and dogs having ticks on their bodies (P = 0.011) were among the major risk factors for the spread of babesiosis in small ruminants.