Geophagy in brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) in a lowland tropical rainforest in Colombia

Spider monkeys and howler monkeys are the only Neotropical primates that eat soil from mineral licks. Not all species within these genera visit mineral licks, and geophagy has been restricted to populations of Ateles belzebuth belzebuth,Ateles belzebuth chamek and Alouatta seniculus in western Amazonian rainforests. With the aid of a camera trap we studied the visitation patterns of a group of brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) to a mineral lick at Serrania de Las Quinchas, in Colombia. Spider monkeys visited the lick frequently throughout the year, with a monthly average of 21.7 ± 7.2 visits per 100 days of camera trapping (n = 14 months). Spider monkeys visited the mineral lick almost always on days with no rain, or very little (<3 mm) rain, suggesting that proximate environmental variables might determine spider monkeys' decisions to come to the ground at the licks. This study expands the geographical occurrence of mineral lick use by spider monkeys providing additional data for future assessments on the biogeographical correlates of mineral lick use by platyrrhines.     

Movement Patterns and Home Range Of The Bongo (Tragelaphus Eurycerus) In The Rain Forest Of The Dzanga National Park, Central African Republic

Bongos ( Tragelaphus eurycerus Ogilby) were studied for 8 months in the Dzanga National Park, Central African Republic. Tracks were followed and mapped with a compass and a pedometer to study movement patterns and home range. Natural licks were shown to be central points in the home range of the bongos: they visited the licks recurrently to consume soil, but also to forage on grass and herb species, and for social reasons. Forest areas far from licks were used much less than forest areas close to licks. When a lick was visited, distances between two resting sites were longer than in the forest without lick visits, caused by a direct and straight movement from the denser forest areas toward a lick. The study area of about 150 km² was presumably occupied by two groups of bongos. One of them seemed to split temporarily into two subgroups. Groups were not larger than 10–20 individuals. Estimated home ranges were at least 49 km² and 19 km² for the two groups, respectively. Estimated density in the Dzanga National Park was 0.25 bongos per km^2. This study shows the importance of natural licks for the largest social forest antelope, the bongo, and provides information which is important for its future conservation.     

Use of Mineral Licks by White-Bellied Spider Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Ateles belzebuth</Emphasis>) and Red Howler Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Alouatta seniculus</Emphasis>) in Eastern Ecuador

Geophagy occurs in all primate groups and is particularly common in species that consume greater quantities of plant material, i.e., leaves, fruit. The function of geophagy is not fully understood and likely varies over space and time, perhaps in connection with changes in diet. Central to a better understanding of geophagy in primate ecology is knowledge of the occurrence of such behavior among different species and seasons. We used camera traps triggered by heat and motion to document the use of mineral licks by primates over a 3-yr period at a lowland forest site in eastern Ecuador (Tiputini Biodiversity Station). Such mineral licks can be important sources of minerals, nutrients, and other compounds for a wide range of species in Amazonian forests. Although 10 species of primates are known from the study site, we obtained photographs of only 2 species, Ateles belzebuth (white-bellied spider monkey) and Alouatta seniculus (red howler) at 2 of 4 saladeros surveyed. From late December 2004 through early January 2008, we recorded 192 photographs with a total of 318 Ateles belzebuth representing ≥66 separate visits. Comparable numbers for Alouatta seniculus were 80, 121, and 37. We recorded both species visiting a mineral lick at the same time on ≥7 occasions. Use of mineral licks varied across months; we recorded more visits from November through February, the drier period at Tiputini. Visits also varied by hour, with no visits before 0830 or after 1630; Ateles belzebuth showed a stronger mid-day peak in visits. Average visit length (calculated as the time between the first and last photographs of a given visit) was similar between the 2 species but median visit length was more than twice as long for Ateles belzebuth (15 min) as for Alouatta seniculus (6 min). Results indicate that mineral licks are important in the ecology of these species, but further studies are needed to determine the precise benefit(s) obtained and how benefits may vary with diet and other factors.     

Daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer (Cervus nippon) in China

Many ungulates are reported to use natural or artificial licks with seasonal patterns around the world. From December 2016 to August 2017, we used infrared camera to record the use of artificial licks in wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Zhejiang Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, China. We explored the daily rhythm, seasonal pattern and sex difference in lick utilization. In total, 12,043 videos and 22,901 pictures were collected. Our results showed that: (1) the lick visiting frequency was higher at night than that during daytime; (2) the difference in lick visiting frequency between females and males disappeared after taking into account of sex ratio; (3) the lick duration peaked in April during a year. These findings suggested that there were clear daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer. Seasonal change in lick use intensity was consistent with our prediction. These variations in lick use might be driven by both the physiological needs of the mineral elements in different life stages and the seasonal changes in climate and food. The reserve management authority should pay more attention to the supplement of licks in spring and summer to fulfill animal’s physiological needs.     

Patterns of mineral lick visitation by spider monkeys and howler monkeys in Amazonia: are licks perceived as risky areas?

Mineral licks--also known as "salados," "saladeros," or "collpas"--are specific sites in tropical and temperate ecosystems where a large diversity of mammals and birds come regularly to feed on soil. Although the reasons for vertebrate geophagy are not completely understood, animals are argued to obtain a variety of nutritional and health benefits from the ingestion of soil at mineral licks. We studied the temporal patterns of mineral lick use by white-bellied spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth) and red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) in a lowland rain forest in Amazonian Ecuador. Using camera and video traps at four different mineral licks, combined with behavioral follows of one group of spider monkeys, we documented rates of mineral lick visitation by both primate species and the relative frequency and intensity of mineral lick use by spider monkeys. On the basis of 1,612 days and 888 nights of mineral lick monitoring, we found that A. belzebuth and A. seniculus both visit mineral licks frequently throughout the year (on average ～14% of days for both species), and mineral lick visitation was influenced by short-term environmental conditions (e.g. sunny and dry weather). For spider monkeys, the area surrounding the lick was also the most frequently and most intensively used region within the group's home range. The fact that spider monkeys spent long periods at the lick area before coming to the ground to obtain soil, and the fact that both species visited the lick preferentially during dry sunny conditions (when predator detectability is presumed to be relatively high) and visited simultaneously more often than expected by chance, together suggest that licks are indeed perceived as risky areas by these primates. We suggest that howler and spider monkeys employ behavioral strategies aimed at minimizing the probability of predation while visiting the forest floor at risky mineral lick sites.     

Mineral licks as a sodium source for Isle Royale moose

Summary Natural mineral licks and their use by moose (Alces alces) on Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, were studied during 1982–85. The distribution of known licks suggested that they occurred in association with glacial debris, primarily in the western portions of the island. Moose utilized mineral springs extensively during the spring-summer period, and at least 5 licks were used year-round. During summer, a pronounced diel pattern of moose visitation was apparent, with peak use occurring between 0400–0800 h. Although daytime lick use declined by late June, morning and evening use continued to be relatively high throughout the study period. Peak lick use coincided with leaf-emergence in spring. Moose continued to utilize mineral licks despite the availability of ponds containing aquatic plants. Sodium appeared to be the element attracting moose to licks where they ingest copious amounts of water. Observed sodium ingestion rates (0.35 g/min) at licks indicate that licks provide a more concentrated source of sodium compared to aquatic plants (0.023 g/min). Based on the data presented, we reject the conclusions of earlier workers that aquatic plants constitute the only significant source of sodium for Isle Royale moose.     

Some aspects of geophagia in Wyoming bighorn sheep (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ovis canadensis</Emphasis>)

Geophagia has been commonly reported for bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and other ungulates worldwide. The phenomenon is often attributed to the need to supplement animal diets with minerals available in the soil at mineral lick locations. Sodium is the mineral most frequently cited as being the specific component sought, although this has not been found universally. In this study area, bighorn sheep left normal summer-range to make bimonthly 26-km, 2,000-m-elevation round-trip migrations, the apparent purpose of which was to visit mineral licks on normal winter-range. Lick soil and normal summer-range soil were sampled for their available mineral content and summer-range forage was sampled for total mineral content, and comparisons were made to determine the specific components sought at the lick by bighorn sheep consuming soil. It was concluded that bighorn sheep were attracted to the lick by a desire for sodium but that geophagia also supplemented a diet deficient in the trace element selenium. Where sheep are denied access to licks, populations may be limited by mineral deficiency.     

Temporal patterns of visitation of birds and mammals at mineral licks in the Peruvian Amazon

Mineral licks are key ecological resources for many species of birds and mammals in Amazonia, providing essential dietary nutrients and clays, yet little is known about which species visit and their behaviors at the mineral licks. Studying visitation and behavior at mineral licks can provide insight into the lives of otherwise secretive and elusive species. We assessed which species visited mineral licks, when they visited, and whether visits and the probability of recording groups at mineral licks were seasonal or related to the lunar cycle. We camera trapped at 52 mineral licks in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon and detected 20 mammal and 13 bird species over 6,255 camera nights. Generalized linear models assessed visitation patterns and records of groups in association with seasonality and the lunar cycle. We report nocturnal curassows (Nothocrax urumutum) visiting mineral licks for the first time. We found seasonal trends in visitation for the black agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), blue‐throated piping guan (Pipile cumanensis), red brocket deer (Mazama americana), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), and tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Lunar trends in visitation occurred for the paca (Cuniculus paca), Brazilian porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), and red brocket deer. The probability of recording groups (>1 individual) at mineral licks was seasonal and related to lunar brightness for tapir. Overall, our results provide important context for how elusive species of birds and mammals interact with these key ecological resources on a landscape scale. The ecological importance of mineral licks for these species can provide context to seasonal changes in species occupancy and movement.

Many species of animals in the Amazon visit mineral licks, consuming soil to supplement their diet. Using camera trap data, we show that visits to mineral licks are seasonal for many species. These trends in visitation are likely due to species‐specific factors such as reproduction, predator avoidance, seasonal diet shifts, and resource use.     

Influence of clay licks on the diversity and structure of an Amazonian forest

The spatial heterogeneity of resource availability is a major driver of biodiversity patterns. Some environmental conditions and resources are characterized by large‐scale patterns of variation within the landscape. Clumped local discontinuities or discrete elements also increase spatial heterogeneity, promoting local ‘biodiversity hot spots’ by modifying habitat characteristics and promoting plant–animal interactions. Clay licks are faunal attractors owing to their role in the nutritional ecology of the user species; nevertheless, the effect of their presence on the surrounding vegetation has been poorly quantified. Here, we use data from 100 × 10 m transects and evaluate the effects of the presence of clay licks on forest diversity and structure at local and landscape scales. In clay lick areas, there was a higher abundance of certain species, which helps to homogenize species composition between localities counteracting the natural distance‐decay of compositional similarity between transects without clay lick influence (controls). Compared to control sites, clay lick′s forests had higher palm densities, shorter but more variable individuals in the canopy and understory, a thinner canopy layer, and denser herbaceous and ground level covers. These differences were found along the whole length of transects in both sampled areas types. These results reveal that the presence of discrete elements (i.e., clay licks) may help to explain the compositional and structural heterogeneity of Amazonian forests influencing ecological processes such as seed dispersal and trampling. These considerations may be relevant for other biomes where clay licks are present and give weight to their inclusion in conservation initiatives in tropical forests.     

Elemental analysis of mineral lick soils from the Serengeti National Park, the Konza Prairie and Yellowstone National Park

We analyzed mineral lick soils and non-mineral lick soils from the Serengeti National Park, the Konza Praine, and Yellowstone National Park The concentrations of 14 different elements considered important for ungulate nutrition were analyzed to determine the relative importance of Na vs other elements in attracting animals to lick areas Only Na was consistently higher in the mineral lick soils of the three ecosystems Mean Na concentrations were c 20x greater in Serengeti licks, 10x greater in Konza licks and 3x greater in Yellowstone licks compared to the respective non-lick soils Despite the numerous elements analyzed for this survey, our results suggest that Na is the primary element initiates mineral lick use in these widely separated ecosystems The widespread distribution of Na-deficient forage likely explains the importance of Na in most mineral licks     

Importance of natural licks for the mammals in Bornean inland tropical rain forests

An intensive camera-trapping study and a nutrient analysis were carried out to understand how natural licks are important for mammals in inland tropical rain forests where soil cations are usually depleted. Using camera traps, we investigated the fauna, food habits, and the frequency of visitation by species at five natural licks in the Deramakot forest reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. All food-habit types of mammals (carnivore, herbivore-frugivore, insectivore, and omnivore), which included 29 (78.4%) of 37 species known in Deramakot, were recorded at the natural licks. The sambar deer, followed by the bearded pig, the lesser mouse-deer, the Malay badger, and the orangutan were the most commonly recorded species and represented 77.5% in terms of the frequency of appearance in all photographs taken throughout the year. These results indicated that, although the proportion of species recorded at the natural licks relative to the whole mammalian fauna of the forest was high, the frequency of visitation greatly varied among the species, and only a few species dominated. The frequency of visitation seemed to reflect both the density of species and the demand for the minerals, because some endangered, low-density species were more frequently recorded by cameras than expected—for example, the orangutan which was one of the top five species among natural-lick users. The natural licks with greater concentrations of minerals in seepage soil water were significantly preferred by the sambar deer and the bearded pig than those with lower concentrations of minerals. This result suggests that the chemical properties of soil water in natural licks determine the frequency of visitation of these herbivorous species that have strong demand for minerals.     

Chemical properties and occurrence on Kalahari sand of salt licks created by elephants

Chemical and physical data from analyses of soil samples of Kalahari Sand deposits in Wankie National Park, Rhodesia, show that salt licks created and used by elephant are characterized by high concentrations of water soluble sodium. Soils with concentrations of calcium, magnesium and potassium in, for instance, termite mounds are used as licks only in regions where soluble sodium is not present in quantity in the soil. Shallow steep-sided salt licks are dug out by elephants with their forefeet during the dry season. Elephant dung is deposited in large quantities on and near salt licks at that season. A brown colour is present in aqueous extracts of salt-lick soils and is likely to consist of sodium salts of humic derivatives of elephant faeces or urine. Rainwater gathering in salt licks in the wet season has an equivalent brown colour and a high sodium content. Similar soil regions rich in sodium but not used as licks have no brown colouration in the soil extract. This brown soluble humic derivative may enable the elephant to detect the salt lick by smell. Licks appear to be important in the social life of the elephant populations. The intensity of present usage of salt licks by elephants is leading to localized soil erosion which will eventually result in the filling in of many clay pans with coarser sands.     

Parrots consume sodium‐rich palms in the sodium‐deprived landscape of the Western Amazon Basin

Herbivorous animals face shortages of different minerals in different geographic areas. In the Amazon Basin, sodium is often limiting, driving herbivores to seek supplemental sources. In the lowlands of the western Amazon Basin, parrots commonly consume sodium‐rich soils at clay licks but lick use varies widely among species, and to date, parrots in the region have not been reported consuming other supplemental sodium sources. We document 11 species of psittacines consuming sodium‐rich leaves and trunks of Attalea butyracea palms growing on sodium‐rich soils in lowland Peru. Consumed palms had more sodium and less potassium than uneaten A. butyracea palms and other palm species in the area. Among A. butyracea palm parts, sodium and Na:K ratios were highest in trunks (consumed by parrots in 94% of the 387 foraging bouts recorded) and lowest in leaves (consumed in only 14% of foraging bouts). The low potassium and high Na:K ratio suggest that birds may be seeking not just any sodium sources, but those low in potassium, as potassium is known to exacerbate dietary sodium shortages. Use of the palms and species’ abundance in the study area were not correlated. Instead, parrot species that consumed palms the most were those that use relatively few traditional soil clay licks. This finding suggests that parrot species in the region have fundamental differences in preferred strategies for obtaining supplemental sodium and may help explain documented interspecific differences in geophagy.     

Amiloride alters lick rate responses to NaCl and KCl in rats

The role-of cation channels on taste cell membranes to salttaste sensation was assessed in rats. We measured the numberof licks during multiple 10-s presentations of NaCl and KClconcentrations (0.05, 0.09, 0.16, 0.28, 0.5 M) dissolved ineither water or in 100 µM amiloride, a sodium-channelblocker. The number of licks to water and 0.3 M sucrose wasalso measured. The number of licks to NaCl was significantlylower and the number of licks to KCl was significantly higherwhen these test solutions were dissolved in amiloride than inwater. There were no differences in lick responses to waterand sucrose. These results suggest that amiloride may have alteredthe taste of NaCl and KCl. The results are discussed in relationshipto prior electrophysiological studies characterizing the effectof amiloride in blocking salt responses of the chorda tympaninerve.     

Effects of predation risk on the grouping patterns of white‐bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) in Western Amazonia

Predation is proposed to be one of the most important factors influencing the evolution of mammalian societies. Although predation risk is thought to influence both the behavior and grouping patterns of most diurnal primates, evidence supporting this hypothesis is still limited. The spatial and temporal patterns of mineral lick use by one group of white‐bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) were evaluated, based on the growing evidence that mineral licks are perceived as areas of relative high predation risk by Neotropical primates. The area immediately surrounding the mineral lick was the most intensively used area within the home range of the study group, particularly by large subgroups of monkeys, and there were differences in mean subgroup size on days of mineral lick visitation versus days without lick visits. Additionally, on days of mineral lick visitation, subgroup size reached its maximum specifically during the period of lick visitation. Finally, on visit days subgroups showed a greater increase in size and higher fusion rates in the 2 hr before arriving at the lick in comparison with matched time windows on non‐visit days. Together, these results provide an example of how primates employ behavioral strategies that might reduce the effects of predation. This study also demonstrates how taxa characterized by a high degree of fission‐fusion dynamics can allow us to test hypotheses regarding the effects of socioecological variables on primate grouping patterns. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:579–590, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Geophagy and nutrient supplementation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, with particular reference to selenium, cobalt and molybdenum

Wildlife and livestock in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, commonly practise geophagy. We investigated the nutrient content of nine earth licks and adjacent topsoils in the NCA, and for comparative purposes, two salt pans in north-eastern Tanzania, licks in central Tanzania and a lick near Puerto Maldonado, Peru. The licks had no consistent pattern of nutrient enrichment relative to unutilized topsoils, although the Na content of licks was greater than that of the adjacent topsoils at all but one site. The three largest licks in the NCA (Gibbs Farm, Seneto and Ascent Road) were enriched relative to topsoils and global averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg⁻¹), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg⁻¹) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg⁻¹). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.     

The application of non-invasive genetic tagging reveals new insights into the clay lick use by macaws in the Peruvian Amazon

Genetic tagging, the unique identification of individuals by their DNA profile, has proven to be an effective method for research on several animal species. In this study we apply non-invasive genetic tagging from feather samples to reveal the genetic structure and estimate local population size of red-and-green macaws (Ara chloropterus) without the need to capture these animals. The study was centered in the Tambopata region of the Peruvian Amazon. Here macaws frequently visit clay licks and their naturally molted feathers provide a unique source of non-invasively sampled DNA. We analyzed 249 feathers using nine microsatellite loci and identified 221 unique genotypes. The remainder revealed 21 individuals which were ‘recaptured’ one or more times. Using a capture-mark-recapture model the average number of different individuals visiting clay licks within one breeding season was estimated to fall between 84 and 316 individuals per clay lick. Analysis of population genetic structure revealed only small genetic differences among regions and clay licks, suggesting a single red-and-green macaw genetic population. Our study confirms the utility of non-invasive genetic tagging in harsh tropical environment to obtain crucial population parameters about an abundant parrot species that is very difficult to capture in the wild.     

Parrot behavior at a Rio Manu (Peru) clay lick: temporal patterns,associations, and antipredator responses

Although eating clay at licks (a form of geophagy) has been described, there are few behavioral data on temporal patterns, social interactions, species associations, or reactions to potential predators. We examined the behavior of nine species of macaws, parrots, and parakeets at the Machiguenga Ccolpa, a clay lick on the Rio Manu, Peru in the dry season. Three distinct mixed-species groups used the licks: in the early morning (parrots and small macaws), in mid-morning (large macaws), and in the early afternoon (parakeets), although the latter two groups used the licks at other times of day as well. The first parrots to begin eating at the lick in the early morning were yellow-crowned parrots (Amazona ochrocephala) and dusky-headed parakeets (Aratinga weddellii), followed by blue-headed parrots Pionus sordidus, and then by mealy (Amazona farinosa) and orange-cheeked (Pionopsitta barrabandi) parrots, and chestnut-fronted macaws (Ara severa). Although blue-headed parrots fed in dense groups of over 50, the others rarely exceeded 20 individuals. Scarlet macaws (A. macao) sometimes fed alone or joined the early morning groups, but most associated with a large group of red and green macaws (A. chloroptera) that arrived, often scaring off the smaller birds. On average, about 100 macaws and parrots fed in the early morning, macaw feeding groups averaging just over 40, and the parakeets averaged over 70. Average time at the lick ranged from 28 min for yellow-crowned parrots to 47 min for tui parakeets. Of the early morning group, blue-headed and mealy parrots were the most aggressive and orange-cheeked parrots were the least aggressive. Red and green macaws were more aggressive than scarlet macaws; the parakeets were equally aggressive. All species had more aggressive interactions with conspecifics than with other species. Responses to intruders and predators varied by species of parrot/macaw and type of intruder. In response to intruders or loud calls, responses could be partial (some individuals flew away, circled, and returned), temporary (all individuals flew away but returned within a few minutes), or total (all flew away and abandoned feeding for at least a half hour). The large macaws showed the lowest rate of total abandonment and the parakeets showed the highest. People passing up or down river in boats scared birds from the lick. The local residents (Machiguenga tribespeople in boats) elicited a much greater response than did the researchers. In the recent past, macaws and parrots were hunted for food, feathers, and the pet trade, and the birds response, as well as the presence of parrot and macaw feathers in local villages we visited, suggests some continued exploitation, or a long-term memory in the birds.Communicated by R.F. Oliveira     

Conditioned suppression as a method of detecting taste thresholds in the rat

Taste thresholds of seven male Sprague—Dawley rats (meanage 10 weeks, mean weight 250 g) were determined for four basictaste qualities: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. The method ofconditioned suppression was employed. An apparatus capable ofpresenting any one of eight separate drinking tubes during atesting session was designed. Animals were reduced to 80–85%ad lib. body weight. They were then trained to lick a sippertube through a slot in the back of an experimental chamber forpellet reinforcements. Animals progressed through a series ofreinforcement schedules starting with a fixed ratio (FR) scheduleof five licks for each reinforcement. They advanced to a variableratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement and finally a variableinterval (VI) schedule with a mean of 17.5 s was used. Whileon the VI schedule animals were trained to suppress lickingwhen any tastant other than water was presented. The first lickon any tastant was followed 10 s later by a mild electric shockif a rat made more than 20 licks on the tube in the 10-s period.Less than 20 licks on a tastant tube resulted in no shock anda 5-s time out before proceeding to the next tube. Thresholdwas determined using a suppression ratio formula. Thresholdwas defined as the 0.33 suppression ratio. Results from thisexperiment reveal mean thresholds for the seven animals as:sucrose = 2.3 mM, NaCl = 0.63 mM, quinine HCl = 0.005 mM andcitric acid = 0.085 mM.     

C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice vary in lick rate and ingestive microstructure

Fluid licking in mice is an example of a rhythmic behavior thought to be under the control of a central pattern generator. Inbred strains of mice have been shown to differ in mean or modal interlick interval (ILI) duration, suggesting a genetic-based variation. We investigated water licking in the commonly used inbred strains C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2), using a commercially available contact lickometer. Results from 20-min test sessions indicated that D2 mice lick at a faster rate than B6 mice (10.6 licks/s vs. 8.5 licks/s), based on analysis of the distribution of short-duration ILIs (50-160 ms). This strain difference was independent of sex, extent of water deprivation or total number of licks. D2 mice also displayed a faster lick rate when the strains were tested with a series of brief (5 s) trials. However, when ingestion over the entire 20-min session was analyzed, it was evident that D2 mice had an overall slower rate of ingestion than B6 mice. This was because of the tendency for D2 mice to have more very long pauses (>30 s) between sequences of licking bursts. Overall, it appeared that D2 mice licked more efficiently, ingesting more rapidly during excursions to the spout that were fewer and farther between.