New insights into the genetic structure of Araucaria araucana forests based on molecular and historic evidences

The conservation of genetic resources is a prerequisite for the maintenance of long-lived forest species. Araucaria araucana (Mol.) K. Koch is one of the oldest conifers in South America and a representative symbol of Chilean forest due to its endemicity and longevity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic structure of the current A. araucana populations in Chile, to verify the possible genetic divergence between Coastal and Andean populations and to assess whether bottleneck events have influenced habitat fragmentation and threaten the genetic resources and evolutionary potential of the species. Twelve natural populations, nine from the Andes Cordillera and three from the Coast Cordillera were analysed by means of eight genomic microsatellite markers developed in A. araucana. Results of analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) highlighted significant differentiation between Coastal and Andean populations (16 %; P?=?0.004), detecting one significant barrier that separated populations from both Cordilleras as maximally differentiated areas. At local scale, both ranges revealed significant inter-population differentiation, with higher values for Coastal populations compared with Andean populations. These results suggested the presence of four gene pools (three in the Andes and one in the Coast Cordilleras) and one population (VIL) in the Coast Cordillera that differed to the rest. The differentiation between the Andean and Coastal populations may provide important baseline data that should allow further studies of landscape genetics in the species and that can contribute to develop conservation strategies for its genetic resources.     

The impacts and implications of an intensifying fire regime on Alaskan boreal forest composition and albedo

Climate warming and drying are modifying the fire dynamics of many boreal forests, moving them towards a regime with a higher frequency of extreme fire years characterized by large burns of high severity. Plot‐scale studies indicate that increased burn severity favors the recruitment of deciduous trees in the initial years following fire. Consequently, a set of biophysical effects of burn severity on postfire boreal successional trajectories at decadal timescales have been hypothesized. Prominent among these are a greater cover of deciduous tree species in intermediately aged stands after more severe burning, with associated implications for carbon and energy balances. Here we investigate whether the current vegetation composition of interior Alaska supports this hypothesis. A chronosequence of six decades of vegetation regrowth following fire was created using a database of burn scars, an existing forest biomass map, and maps of albedo and the deciduous fraction of vegetation that we derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery. The deciduous fraction map depicted the proportion of aboveground biomass in deciduous vegetation, derived using a RandomForest algorithm trained with field data sets (n=69, 71% variance explained). Analysis of the difference Normalized Burn Ratio, a remotely sensed index commonly used as an indicator of burn severity, indicated that burn size and ignition date can provide a proxy of burn severity for historical fires. LIDAR remote sensing and a bioclimatic model of evergreen forest distribution were used to further refine the stratification of the current landscape by burn severity. Our results show that since the 1950s, more severely burned areas in interior Alaska have produced a vegetation cohort that is characterized by greater deciduous biomass. We discuss the importance of this shift in vegetation composition due to climate‐induced changes in fire severity for carbon sequestration in forest biomass and surface reflectance (albedo), among other feedbacks to climate.     

Physical-mechanical properties and chemical composition of Pinus taeda mature wood following a forest fire

The objective of this study was to assess the effects of heat released during forest fires on wood properties of Pinus taeda L. trees submitted to different burning levels (increasing fire intensity, I-IV). Wood samples were collected from trees in each of the burning levels and also from trees not affected by fire (control). Specimens were then extracted to evaluate the physical and mechanical wood properties; chemical composition was evaluated only for burning level IV and control. The analysis of the results showed that fire effects over the physical-mechanical properties and chemical composition in all burning levels did not cause sufficient chemical degradation and strength reduction, which could be cause for rejection of those woods for normal use. In the case of structural use caution should be adopted for the wood from burning levels III and IV, which had their mechanical property values reduced.     

模拟不同森林可燃物处理对大兴安岭潜在林火状况的影响

大兴安岭林区50年来实施的森林防火政策导致森林火烧轮回期延长,可燃物累积,所以需要将森林可燃物的管理纳入到森林防火政策中。本研究构建10种可燃物处理预案,5种为计划火烧预案（PB02, PB04, PB06, PB08, PB10）,另5种为机械清除+计划火烧预案（PR02, PR04, PRP6, PR08, PR10, 用无处理预案(notreat)作对照。采用空间直观森林景观模型LANDIS,从火烧面积、不同强度火烧面积和林火强度动态特征来说明不同可燃物处理预案的长期效果（300年）。结果表明,计划火烧虽然可以减少总火烧面积,但随着处理面积的增加,减少幅度不大,对于降低高强度火烧面积效果不显著;机械清除+计划火烧可以有效地减少火烧面积,降低火烧强度 ［将高强度火(4、5级)降低为低强度火(1、2级)］。建议森林可燃物处理必须长期进行,以达到降低林火强度、减少灾难性火灾发生的机率的目的。     

Stand density and drought interaction on water relations of Nothofagus antarctica: contribution of forest management to climate change adaptability

Nothofagus antarctica is the most representative species of the native mixed forest occupying ecotone areas between forests and steppe in NW Patagonia, South-America. In this type of environment, vulnerability to climate change is particularly enhanced. Predictions of future climatic conditions for this region indicate an increment of atmospheric temperature and also, a high variability of rain events, threatening forest persistence and productivity. In this framework, management strategies are crucial to guarantee sustainability of native vegetation systems. The objective of this study was to study the effect of tree density on the ecophysiological limitations of water use of N. antarctica, as a proxy to its productivity, during a drought period. Compared with the unthinned forest, the thinned forest showed higher soil water availability, higher sapflow density (Js) and canopy conductance (Gc) values, similar aerodynamic conductance (Ga) and a low degree of coupling to vapor pressure deficit. Ecophysiological results demonstrated a high limitation over gas exchange of individual N. antarctica trees imposed by the resistance in the hydraulic soil-to-leaf pathway in the unthinned-natural condition. Surprisingly, our results suggest structural limitations in the unthinned stand which reduce the ability of N. antarctica trees to take advantage of wet seasons, at least in the short term. Thinning could decrease the susceptibility of N. antarctica-based systems to drought stress, by increasing resource availability to the remaining trees, thus contributing to enhance the persistence of this species under climate change conditions.     

Modeling the effects of fire and climate change on carbon and nitrogen storage in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stands

The interaction between disturbance and climate change and resultant effects on ecosystem carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) fluxes are poorly understood. Here, we model (using CENTURY version 4.5) how climate change may affect C and N fluxes among mature and regenerating lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm. ex S. Wats.) stands that vary in postfire tree density following stand-replacing fire. Both young (postfire) and mature stands had elevated forest production and net N mineralization under future climate scenarios relative to current climate. Forest production increased 25% [Hadley (HAD)] to 36% [Canadian Climate Center (CCC)], compared with 2% under current climate, among stands that varied in stand age and postfire density. Net N mineralization increased under both climate scenarios, e.g., +19% to 37% (HAD) and +11% to 23% (CCC), with greatest increases for young stands with sparse tree regeneration. By 2100, total ecosystem carbon (live+dead+soils) in mature stands was higher than prefire levels, e.g., +16% to 19% (HAD) and +24% to 28% (CCC). For stands regenerating following fire in 1988, total C storage was 0–9% higher under the CCC climate model, but 5–6% lower under the HAD model and 20–37% lower under the Control. These patterns, which reflect variation in stand age, postfire tree density, and climate model, suggest that although there were strong positive responses of lodgepole pine productivity to future changes in climate, C flux over the next century will reflect complex relationships between climate, age structure, and disturbance-recovery patterns of the landscape.     

Effects of fire disturbance on the soil physical and chemical properties and vegetation of Pinus massoniana forest in south subtropical area

A variety of studies on the impact of fire disturbance on ecosystems has shown that the physical and chemical properties of soil after fire disturbance change notably. Meanwhile, little is known about the effects of different fire intensities on the soil properties and vegetation after fire disturbance, especially in the south subtropical area. In this paper, we analyzed the soil physical and chemical properties, vegetation species and species diversity of fire center, fire edge (which was burned a year ago) and non-burned Pinus massoniana plantation in Gaoyao, Guangdong province, China. The results showed that the soil conductivity, water content, total nitrogen, total potassium, and available potassium content of fire center were significantly higher than those of the non-burned land, and pH was higher than that of fire edge, whereas the available nitrogen, total phosphorus and organic matter content were much lower, which were generally existed in 0–10 cm soil layer and 10–30 cm soil layer. Changes of the soil properties of fire edge were similar with those of fire center, but less significant, and seemed to be more complex. Effects of burning on the vegetation of fire disturbance plots were found to be notable, species number and average height of plants of fire disturbance plots were lower than those of the non-burned plots, a difference of species diversity and uniformity were also shown, and finally, the composition of plant community also changed, e.g., pioneer species such as D. dichotoma, etc., dominated, and drought-resistant plants, heat-resistant plants and positive plants increased after burning.     

Influence of rocky landscape features and fire regime on vegetation dynamics in Appalachian Quercus forests

Question : How do interactions between rocky landscape features and fire regime influence vegetation dynamics? Location : Continental Eastern USA. Methods : We measured vegetation, disturbance and site characteristics in 40 pairs of rocky and non‐rocky plots: 20 in recently burned stands, and 20 in stands with no evidence of recent fire (‘unburned’ stands). Two‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the main and interaction effects of fire and rock cover on plant community composition. Results : In burned stands, rock cover had a strong influence on vegetation. Non‐rocky ‘matrix’ forests were dominated by Quercus, and had abundant ground cover and advance regeneration of early and mid‐successional tree species. Burned rocky patches supported greater density of fire‐sensitive species such as Acer rubrum, Sassafras albidum and Nyssa sylvatica and had little advance regeneration or ground cover. Quercus had fewer fire scars and catfaces (open, basal wounds) on rocky patches, suggesting that rocky features mitigate fire severity. In unburned stands, differences between rocky and non‐rocky patches were less distinct, with both patch types having sparse ground cover, little tree regeneration, and high understorey densities of relatively shade tolerant A. rubrum, N. sylvatica and Betula lenta. Conclusion : Under a sustained fire regime, heterogeneity in rock cover created a mosaic where fire‐adapted species such as Quercus dominate the landscape, but where fire‐sensitive species persisted in isolated pockets of lower fire severity. Without fire, species and landscape richness may decline as early‐mid successional species are replaced by more shade tolerant competitors.     

Influence of fire severity on stand development of Araucaria araucana–Nothofagus pumilio stands in the Andean cordillera of south‐central Chile

Fire is the prevalent disturbance in the Araucaria–Nothofagus forested landscape in south‐central Chile. Although both surface and stand‐replacing fires are known to characterize these ecosystems, the variability of fire severity in shaping forest structure has not previously been investigated in Araucaria–Nothofagus forests. Age structures of 16 stands, in which the ages of approximately 650 trees were determined, indicate that variability in fire severity and frequency is key to explaining the mosaic of forest patches across the Araucaria–Nothofagus landscape. High levels of tree mortality in moderate‐ to high‐severity fires followed by new establishment of Nothofagus pumilio typically result in stands characterized by one or two cohorts of this species. Large Araucaria trees are highly resistant to fire, and this species typically survives moderate‐ to high‐severity fires either as dispersed individuals or as small groups of multi‐aged trees. Small post‐fire cohorts of Araucaria may establish, depending on seed availability and the effects of subsequent fires. Araucaria's great longevity (often >700 years) and resistance to fire allow some individuals to survive fires that kill and then trigger new Nothofagus cohorts. Even in relatively mesic habitats, where fires are less frequent, the oldest Araucaria–Nothofagus pumilio stands originated after high‐severity fires. Overall, stand development patterns of subalpine Araucaria–N. pumilio forests are largely controlled by moderate‐ to high‐severity fires, and therefore tree regeneration dynamics is strongly dominated by a catastrophic regeneration mode.     

Effect of elevated CO2 on the utilization of light energy in Nothofagus fusca and Pinus radiata

Red beech (Nothofagus fusca (Hook. F.) Oerst.; Fagaceae) andradiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don; Pinaceae) were grown for16 months in large open-top chambers at ambient (37 Pa) andelevated (66 Pa) atmospheric partial pressure of CO₂, and incontrol plots (no chamber). Summer-time measurements showedthat photosynthetic capacity was similar at elevated CO₂ (lightand CO₂-saturated value of 17.2 µmol m^–2 s^–1for beech, 13.5 µmol m^–2 s^–1 for pine), plantsgrown at ambient CO₂ (beech 21.0 µmol^–2 s^–1,pine 14.9 µmol m^–2s^–1) or control plants grownwithout chambers (beech 23.2 µmol m^–2 s^–1,pine 12.9 µmol m^–2 s^–1). However, the higherCO₂ partial pressure had a direct effect on photosynthetic rate,such that under their respective growth conditions, photosynthesisfor the elevated CO₂ treatment (measured at 70 Pa CO₂ partialpressure: beech 14.1 µmol m^–2 s^–1 pine 10.3)was greater than in ambient (measured at 35 Pa CO₂: beech 9.7µmol m^–2 s^–1, pine 7.0 µmol m^–2s^–1) or control plants (beech 10.8 µmol m^–2s^–1, pine 7.2 µmol m^–2 s^–1). Measurementsof chlorophyll fluorescence revealed no evidence of photodamagein any treatment for either species. The quantity of the photoprotectivexanthophyll cycle pigments and their degree of de-epoxidationat midday did not differ among treatments for either species.The photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (yield) was lowerin control plants than in chamber-grown plants, and was higherin chamber plants at ambient than at elevated CO₂. These resultssuggest that at lower (ambient) CO₂ partial pressure, beechplants may have dissipated excess energy by a mechanism thatdoes not involve the xanthophyll cycle pigments. Key words: Carotenoids, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthesis, photoinhibition, photoprotection, xanthophyll cycle     

The effect of wind and shaking on the water relations of Pinus contorta

It is usually suggested that the effects of wind on plant growth and development are caused by water stress. The purpose of the work reported in this paper is to examine this suggestion by a series of experiments in a controlled environment wind tunnel. Cuticular conductance of Pinus contorta subjected to low and high wind-speeds were determined by weighing detached needles on a microbalance. Although the needles collided with each other at the high wind-speed, there was no effect on cuticular conductance, unlike results obtained elsewhere with broader-leaved plants. The transpiration rates and needle conductances of whole plants were unaffected by exposure to wind or a gentle shaking treatment. Water potentials and pressure-volume curves were determined on individual needles of Pinus contorta . Wind and shaking had no effect on total, solute, or pressure potentials, or in any of the parameters describing the pressure-volume curves. It is concluded that the effects of these treatments on growth of Pinus contorta , reported in previous papers, are unlikely to be caused by tissue water stress.     

火烧对中国北亚热带天然马尾松林土壤有机碳的影响

以北亚热带天然马尾松火烧迹地为研究对象,对火灾1年后0~50 cm各土层土壤有机碳和土壤养分含量变化进行分析。结果表明:火灾后各层土壤总有机碳、易氧化碳和轻组有机质含量均高于对照样地,增幅分别为4.5%~47.6%、6.6%~43.0%和9.0%~49.1%,且在0~10 cm和10~20 cm土层中差异极显著(P0.01);火灾发生1年后在0~50 cm土壤剖面土壤有机碳储量相比对照样地增加了23.8%(P0.01);过火后土壤总有机碳、易氧化碳和轻组有机质与土壤养分(全氮、水解氮、速效钾)的相关性均达到极显著水平(P0.01)。火后土壤有机碳增加的主要原因是植被层未充分燃烧的有机残体的混入。     

Patterns and drivers of Araucaria araucana forest growth along a biophysical gradient in the northern Patagonian Andes: Linking tree rings with satellite observations of soil moisture

Araucaria araucana (Araucaria) is a long‐lived conifer growing along a sharp west–east biophysical gradient in the Patagonian Andes. The patterns and climate drivers of Araucaria growth have typically been documented on the driest part of the gradient relying on correlations with meteorological records, but the lack of in situ soil moisture observations has precluded an assessment of the growth responses to soil moisture variability. Here, we use a network of 21 tree‐ring width chronologies to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of tree growth through the entire gradient and evaluate their linkages with regional climate and satellite‐observed surface soil moisture variability. We found that temporal variations in tree growth are remarkably similar throughout the gradient and largely driven by soil moisture variability. The regional spatiotemporal pattern of tree growth was positively correlated with precipitation (r = 0.35 for January 1920–1974; P < 0.01) and predominantly negatively correlated with temperature (r = ?0.38 for January–March 1920–1974; P < 0.01) during the previous growing season. These correlations suggest a temporally lagged growth response to summer moisture that could be associated with known physiological carry‐over processes in conifers and to a response to moisture variability at deeper layers of the rooting zone. Notably, satellite observations revealed a previously unobserved response of Araucaria growth to summer surface soil moisture during the current rather than the previous growing season (r = 0.65 for 1979–2000; P < 0.05). This new response has a large spatial footprint across the mid‐latitudes of the South American continent (35°–45°S) and highlights the potential of Araucaria tree rings for palaeoclimatic applications. The strong moisture constraint on tree growth revealed by satellite observations suggests that projected summer drying during the coming decades may result in regional growth declines in Araucaria forests and other water‐limited ecosystems in the Patagonian Andes.     

Effect of thermal radiation of forest fire on the environment

Thermal radiation of forest fires of different kinds was studied. Areas have been established where thermal radiation affects the forest stands and firemen.     

Effects of fire and spruce beetle outbreak legacies on the disturbance regime of a subalpine forest in Colorado

Aim There is increasing research attention being given to the role of interactions among natural disturbances in ecosystem processes. We studied the interactions between fire and spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis Kirkby) disturbances in a Colorado subalpine forest. The central questions of this research were: (1) How does fire history influence stand susceptibility to beetle outbreak? And conversely, (2) How does prior occurrence of a beetle outbreak influence stand susceptibility to subsequent fire? Methods We reconstructed the spatial disturbance history in a c. 4600 ha area by first identifying distinct patches in the landscape on aerial photographs. Then, in the field we determined the disturbance history of each patch by dating stand origin, fire scars, dates of mortality of dead trees, and releases on remnant trees. A geographical information system (GIS) was used to overlay disturbance by fire and spruce beetle. Results and main conclusions The majority of stands in the study area arose following large, infrequent, severe fires occurring in c. 1700, 1796 and 1880. The study area was also affected by a severe spruce beetle outbreak in the 1940s and a subsequent low‐severity fire. Stands that originated following stand‐replacing fire in the late nineteenth century were less affected by the beetle outbreak than older stands. Following the beetle outbreak, stands less affected by the outbreak were more affected by low‐severity fire than stands more severely affected by the outbreak. The reduced susceptibility to low‐severity fire possibly resulted from increased moisture on the forest floor following beetle outbreak. The landscape mosaic of this subalpine forest was strongly influenced by the interactions between fire and insect disturbances.     

Effects of large-scale forest fire followed by illegal logging on the regeneration of boreal forests in Mongolia

Landscape and Ecological Engineering - We aimed to test the hypothesis that large-scale forest fire followed by illegal logging inhibits the regeneration of boreal forests in Mongolia. For this...     

Effects of Auxins and other Factors on the Rooting of Pinus contorta Dougl. Cuttings

The effects are investigated of applications of NAA and IBAupon root number, root type and time to form first roots incuttings of Pinus contorta Dougl. Cuttings treated with NAAgenerally formed thick, fleshy, unbranched roots, while thosereceiving IBA produced a thin, finely-divided root system. Bothtypes of roots developed when the two hormones were appliedtogether. The time taken for first roots to form, and the finalnumber of rooted cuttings were also greatly increased when hormoneswere applied in the range 1–10 µg per cutting. Boricacid applied in combination with hormone treatments increasedrooting, but boron alone was ineffective. There were markeddifferences between clones in their rooting responses to bothhormone and boron treatments.