Physiological blocking of the mechanisms of the cold death

Physiological mechanisms of the cold paralyses of the main, most important functions during deep hypothermia of a homeothermic organism were studied. The reasons for the organism death upon deep cooling were revealed. The cold paralyses and the following organism death were shown to be accounted for to a great extent by the specific impairments in the ion exchange between the nervous cells of vegetative brain centers and the intercellular medium and the blood. Removing these impairments with the help of the methods developed in the authors laboratory allows the lost physiological functions of an organism to be restored for a time without rewarming the body.     

Accidental hypothermia and death from cold in urban areas

Hypothermia is considered a sericus problem in big cities. In order to clarify factors contributing to urban hypothermia and death from cold which will continue to be an issue in cities in the future, we analyzed autopsy reports recorded in the Tokyo Medical Examiner's Office from 1974 to 1983. In a total of 18346 autopsy reports 157 deaths had been diagnosed as due to exposure to cold. Of these cases, the greatest number were males in their forties and fifties, and most of these were inebriated and/or homeless. Eighty-four perent of urban hypothermia cases occurred when the outdoor temperature was below 5°C, and 50% of deaths from cold occurred when the outdoor temperature was between 0° and 5°C. There were no incidences of death from cold when the minimum outdoor temperature had remained above 16°C. Seventy-four percent of deaths from cold occurred during the winter months of December, January and February, and most of the remaining deaths occurred in March and November. There were no deaths from cold from June to August. More than half of all deaths from cold occurred from 3.00 a.m. to 9.00 a.m., with the peak occurring at 5.00 a.m. A blood alcohol concentration of over 2.5 mg/ml had often been found in those in their forties and fifties who had died from hypothermia, and autopsy had often revealed disorders of the liver, digestive system, and circulatory system. Chronic lesions of the liver, probably due to alcoholism, were found in many cases; few cases showed no evidence of alcoholism and these were significantly different from the former group.     

Evaluation of the cold strain index (CSI) for peripheral cold environmental stress

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the cold strain index (CSI) for peripheral environmental stress using data from a previous footwear study. Eight men (20±2 yr) dressed in protective cold weather clothing with varying footwear underwent 5 days of cold air (−23.4 °C) testing while attempting to sit for 240 min. Rectal, skin, and toe temperatures (T_toe) were continuously measured. All test exposures were ended after 50–165 min due to cold foot discomfort or T_toe<5 °C. However, CSI values indicated little cold strain. Therefore, we revised CSI to include peripheral cold assessment, which was found to be consistent with subject behavior and measured low T_toe.     

Accuracy of RBE: experimental and theoretical considerations

The concept of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) is essential for treatment planning in carbon ion therapy and for understanding the biological effects of high-LET radiation. As this quantity depends on many factors, both its experimental determination and the assessment of its uncertainty are not trivial. For the limiting case of zero dose, where the RBE takes its maximum value RBE_α, we present in this article a simple empirical-based approach to estimate its uncertainty. A Gaussian error calculus is applied to equally take into account both uncertainties from experiments with high- and low-LET radiation. From a theoretical point of view, we then infer, using a simple Monte Carlo model, the distribution of RBE_α values. This illustrates why the conventional error propagation approach is inappropriate in some cases. In these cases, likewise also the error estimates have to be obtained with a more sophisticated approach. Uncertainties of RBE, visualized by error bars, are of importance for treatment planning and also for setting up a precision goal for predicting biophysical models such as the local effect model.     

Fur characteristics of the African ice rat Otomys sloggetti robertsi: Modifications for an alpine existence

The African ice rat Otomys sloggetti robertsi is a small rodent confined to cold, alpine habitats. It does not hibernate and is poorly adapted physiologically to low temperatures. We predicted and showed that its fur is denser than its congeners from warmer habitats, but it had shorter fur than expected. Dense fur would provide insulation and piloerection of short fur would facilitate heat gain from solar radiation during sun basking. These traits, in addition to other behavioural and morphological traits, would assist O. s. robertsi in meeting its thermoregulatory requirements in response to low temperatures.     

Developmental plasticity and developmental origins of non-communicable disease: theoretical considerations and epigenetic mechanisms

There is now evidence that developmental influences have lifelong effects on cardiovascular and metabolic function and that elements of the heritable or familial component of susceptibility to cardiovascular disease, obesity and other non-communicable diseases (NCD) can be transmitted across generations by non-genomic means. In animals the developmental environment induces altered phenotypes through genetic, physiological (especially endocrine) and epigenetic mechanisms. The latter include DNA methylation, covalent modifications of histones and non-coding RNAs. Such ‘tuning’ of phenotype has potential adaptive value and may confer Darwinian fitness advantage because it either adjusts the phenotype to current circumstances and/or attempts to match an individual’s responses to the environment predicted to be experienced later. When the phenotype is mismatched to the later environment, e.g. from inaccurate nutritional cues from the mother or placenta before birth, or from rapid environmental change through improved socio-economic conditions, risk of NCD increases. Such mechanisms are also thought to play roles in ageing and early onset of puberty, reinforcing a life-course perspective on such adaptive responses, especially the detrimental later effects of trade-offs. Epigenetic changes induced during development are highly gene-specific and function at the level of individual CpG dinucleotides in both gene promoter and intergenic regions. Evidence is accruing that endocrine or nutritional interventions during early postnatal life can reverse epigenetic and phenotypic changes induced, for example, by unbalanced maternal diet during pregnancy. Elucidation of epigenetic processes may permit perinatal identification of individuals most at risk of later NCD and enable early intervention strategies to reduce such risk.     

The effects of elevated temperature and humidity on rectal temperature and respiration rate in the New Zealand white rabbit

In 2 replicated factorial experiments, 7-h climate chamber exposures were used to study the responses of adult NZW rabbits to a range of elevated temperatures and humidities. At 18 mm Hg water vapour pressure, 23.8° C was well tolerated, rectal temperature (RT) and respiration rate (RR) averaging 38.6±0.3° C and 82.9±15.5 breaths/min, respectively. Both parameters were elevated (P<0.001) at 32.2°, 37.8° and 43.3° C. RT and RR reached plateau levels of 39.5–40.1° C and 410–460/min at 32.2° C, which was tolerated for the full 7-h test period. Test temperatures of 37.8° and 43.3° C, on the other hand, could be tolerated for only 80 and 40 min respectively, before RT reached the safe upper limit of 41.7° C. Final RR values at 37.8° and 43.3° C were 701.6±42.7 and 812±55.1/min, respectively. In a 34.5° C atmosphere a humidity of 21 mm Hg water vapour pressure was classified as dry, and was tolerated for 323±123 min. RT and RR increased by 0.6° C and 316/min during the first 20 min of exposure (P<0.05). Thereafter both parameters increased progressively, but with no significant differences between successive recording periods, until RR reached 550.3±88.8/min at 41.7° C RT. Humidities of 25, 29 and 33 mm Hg water vapour pressure were, on the other hand, classified as wet and were tolerated for only 92±22, 81±16 and 119±50 min, respectively. RR at the times that RT reached 41.7° C at these 3 humidities was 732±26, 789±30 and 764±23/min, respectively. The results point to the likelihood that thermal stress will adversely affect the productivity and welfare of NZW rabbits in the tropics unless adequate housing environments are provided. Significant between-individual phenotypic differences in heat tolerance suggest the need for genetic studies of the possibility of selecting for improved heat tolerance.     

Population studies,Reproductive Behavior and family composition: Some theoretical considerations

Human populations are characterized by their heterogeneity, as much cultural as biological. This is why they can but the considered as complex entities. On the one side, this means going beyond the typological approach of traditional physical anthropology and thinking in terms of evolutionary processes, that is to say, population reproduction. On the other side, this implies developing an integrated view which takes into account as much cultural processes as demographic, socio-economic or biological ones. This paper aims to show, in this regard, the pertinence of taking the family as the unit of analysis. Yet, it is not enough to consider family structure, i.e. the composition of the domestic group, but one needs to understand the kinship system on which it is based and its dynamics. This is done by examining the different stages through which the family goes along its life cycle. We close these theoretical considerations by briefly illustrating them with our data on fertility and household composition in two different populations from the Altos de Chiapas in Mexico.     

Physiological responses and thermal sensations of the elderly in cold and hot environments

1. 1. 10 elderly and 10 college-aged females served as subjects in cold and heat environments. The subjects changed into the standard clothing (0.63 clo), and stayed in the neutral environment (25°C) for 23 min, thereafter they were exposed to the cold (10°C) or hot (35°C) environment for 49 min.

2. 2. Then they returned to the neutral environment, and stayed there for 47 min. Oral temperature, skin temperatures at 10 sites, blood pressure and thermal sensation were measured during the experiments.

3. 3. In the cold environment, the elderly could not reduce heat loss by vasoconstriction as did young people, and their blood pressures increased more rapidly than in young people. In the hot environment, the elderly could not promote heat loss by vasodilation as did young people. Moreover, there is a delayed sensitivity to cold for the elderly. Therefore, in the houses of the elderly, it is important to have heating and cooling systems which also includes the areas where the people do not stay for a long period of time (e.g. toilet, passageways).

五种植物抗寒性的比较研究

采用电导法对五种植物(四种美国引进的植物和一种乡土植物)进行不同低温处理,研究其在各温度下的细胞膜透性改变情况,并配以Logistic方程求拐点值确定低温半致死温度LT50。结果表明:低温处理下各种植物组织电解质渗透率增加,并呈"S"形曲线增长,各种植物的低温半致死温度分别为:沙地柏为-46.58℃,四翅滨藜-1,四翅滨藜-2分别为-42.44℃和-40.09℃,黑油脂木为-27.7℃,伏地肤为-22.18℃。故其抗寒性从强到弱的顺序为沙地柏>四翅滨藜-1>四翅滨藜-2>驼绒藜>黑油脂木>伏地肤。     

Physiological mechanisms of thermoregulation in reptiles: a review

The thermal dependence of biochemical reaction rates means that many animals regulate their body temperature so that fluctuations in body temperature are small compared to environmental temperature fluctuations. Thermoregulation is a complex process that involves sensing of the environment, and subsequent processing of the environmental information. We suggest that the physiological mechanisms that facilitate thermoregulation transcend phylogenetic boundaries. Reptiles are primarily used as model organisms for ecological and evolutionary research and, unlike in mammals, the physiological basis of many aspects in thermoregulation remains obscure. Here, we review recent research on regulation of body temperature, thermoreception, body temperature set-points, and cardiovascular control of heating and cooling in reptiles. The aim of this review is to place physiological thermoregulation of reptiles in a wider phylogenetic context. Future research on reptilian thermoregulation should focus on the pathways that connect peripheral sensing to central processing which will ultimately lead to the thermoregulatory response.     

Variable mesophyll conductance revisited: theoretical background and experimental implications

The CO₂ concentration at the site of carboxylation inside the chloroplast stroma depends not only on the stomatal conductance, but also on the conductance of CO₂ between substomatal cavities and the site of CO₂ fixation. This conductance, commonly termed mesophyll conductance (g_m), significantly constrains the rate of photosynthesis. Here we show that estimates of g_m are influenced by the amount of respiratory and photorespiratory CO₂ from the mitochondria diffusing towards the chloroplasts. This results in an apparent CO₂ and oxygen sensitivity of g_m that does not imply a change in intrinsic diffusion properties of the mesophyll, but depends on the ratio of mitochondrial CO₂ release to chloroplast CO₂ uptake. We show that this effect (1) can bias the estimation of the CO₂ photocompensation point and non‐photorespiratory respiration in the light; (2) can affect the estimates of ribulose 1·5‐bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) kinetic constants in vivo; and (3) results in an apparent obligatory correlation between stomatal conductance and g_m. We further show that the amount of photo(respiratory) CO₂ that is refixed by Rubisco can be directly estimated through measurements of g_m.     

不同基础体温的家兔对热原检查结果的影响

对实验中使用的普通级家兔基础体温进行统计,观察不同基础体温家兔注射血液制品后的升温情况。按照中华人民共和国药典(2005)年版三部的热原检查规定进行测定,将实验家兔基础体温38.0℃~39.6℃分为3组:38.0℃~38.5℃为1组;38.6℃~39.0℃为2组;39.1℃~39.6℃为3组。注射制品后,家兔升温≥0.4℃记为升温家兔,统计升温≥0.4℃的家兔升温百分率并对其进行统计学处理。经卡方检验,升温家兔≥0.4℃的百分率1组与2组、1组与3组有显著性差异(p<0.05);2组与3组无显著性差异(p>0.05)。家兔对热原的敏感性随基础体温的高低而有明显的差异,基础体温偏低的家兔对热原更敏感,其升温幅度大于基础体温偏高的家兔。     

On integrating experimental and theoretical models to determine physical mechanisms of morphogenesis

Researchers in developmental biology are increasingly recognizing the value of theoretical models in studies of morphogenesis. However, creating and testing realistic quantitative models for morphogenetic processes can be an extremely challenging task. The focus of this paper is on models for the mechanics of morphogenesis. Models for these problems often must include large changes in geometry, leading to highly nonlinear problems with the possibility of multiple solutions that must be sorted out using experimental data. Here, we illustrate our approach to these problems using the specific example of head fold formation in the early chick embryo. The interplay between experimental and theoretical results is emphasized throughout, as the model is gradually refined. Some of the limitations inherent in theoretical/computational modeling of biological systems are also discussed.     

Thermal acclimation in the microcrustacean Daphnia: a survey of behavioural, physiological and biochemical mechanisms

Thermal acclimation in Daphnia magna was studied on various levels to test the recent “oxygen-limited thermal tolerance” hypothesis. Preference behaviour in a thermal gradient was determined by both, ambient temperature and corresponding oxygen concentration. Swimming activity depended on aerobic energy provision and reflected the match or mismatch of oxygen supply and energy demand at different ambient temperatures. Thermal acclimation modified both types of behaviour and more slightly heat tolerance. Perfusion and haemoglobin properties turned out to be central control variables to adapt oxygen transport to varying energy demands at different ambient temperatures. Exceptional advantages of Daphnia as an experimental model organism allowed to confirm on a behavioural, physiological and biochemical level that thermal acclimation is strongly based on the adaptation of oxygen transport allowing unidirectional shifts of the thermal tolerance range to warmer or colder temperatures.     

Effects of ethanol exposure on the embryo-fetus: experimental considerations, mechanisms, and the role of prostaglandins

The purpose of this review is to critically examine the effects of ethanol on the embryo-fetus. There has been a tremendous amount of human epidemiological and experimental animal research on the characterization of the anomalies produced by chronic prenatal ethanol exposure and the identification of critical periods of vulnerability and critical amounts of ethanol necessary to produce fetal effects and (or) abnormal development. Few studies have examined the underlying mechanism(s) of the action of ethanol, and even fewer studies have examined the effects of single-dose ethanol exposure on the embryo-fetus. In this review, the current state of knowledge of the effects of chronic use of ethanol on the embryo-fetus is summarized. The primary focus of the review is on the embryonic-fetal effects of acute ethanol exposure, with particular emphasis on the ethanol-induced suppression of fetal breathing movements, as this effect appears to be a very sensitive index of acute exposure of the near-term fetus to ethanol. Factors to be considered in the selection of experimental animals to investigate the mechanism of action of ethanol and to study the acute effects of ethanol are discussed. Postulated mechanisms of action of ethanol on the embryo-fetus are evaluated with a focus on the role of prostaglandins. Finally, future directions in this field of research are proposed.     

Preferred temperature of intertidal ectotherms: Broad patterns and methodological approaches

Preferred temperature (Tpref) has been measured in over 100 species of aquatic and 300 species of terrestrial ectotherms as a metric for assessing behavioural thermoregulation in variable environments and, as such, has been linked to ecological processes ranging from individual behaviour to population and community dynamics. Due to the asymmetric shape of performance curves, Tpref is typically lower than the optimal temperature (Topt, where physiological performance is at its peak), and the degree of this mismatch increases with variability in Tb. Intertidal ectotherms experience huge variability in Tb on a daily basis and therefore provide a good system to test whether the relationship between Tpref and variation in Tb holds in more extreme environments. A review of the literature, however, only revealed comparisons between Tpref and Topt for five intertidal species and measurements of Tpref for 23 species. An analysis of this limited literature for intertidal ectotherms showed a positive relationship between acclimation temperature and Tpref. There was, however, great variation in the methodologies employed to make these assessments. Factors contributing to behavioural thermoregulation in intertidal ectotherms including small body size; low mobility; interactions among individuals; endogenous clocks; metabolic effects; thermal sensitivity; sampling of the thermal environment and recent acclimation history were considered to varying degrees when measuring Tpref, confounding comparisons between species. The methodologies used to measure Tpref in intertidal ectotherms were reviewed in light of each of these factors, and methodologies proposed to standardize approaches. Given the theoretical predictions about the relationships between Tpref and variability in Tb, the spatial and temporal thermal variability experienced by intertidal ectotherms provides numerous opportunities to test these expectations if assessed in a standardized manner, and can potentially provide insights into the value of behavioural thermoregulation in the more thermally variable environments predicted to occur in the near future.     

Thermoregulation in four species of tropical solitary bees: the roles of size,sex and altitude

Body temperatures during free flight in the field, warm-up rates during pre-flight warm-up, and temperatures during tethered flight are measured for four tropical solitary bee species at three sites of differing altitude in Papua New Guinea. All four species are capable of endothermic preflight warm-up; three species give slopes of thoracic temperature on ambient temperature of significantly less than 1, indicating regulation of thoracic temperature. In the kleptoparasitic Coelioxys spp. (Megachilidae) and Thyreus quadrimaculatus (Anthophoridae), warm-up rates and thoracic temperatures in flight are low by comparison with the two provisioning species Creightonella frontalis (Megachilidae) and Amegilla sapiens (Anthophoridae). In both C. frontalis and A. sapiens thoracic temperatures correlate positively and significantly with both ambient temperature and body mass. In A. sapiens, body mass increases with altitude; this can be interpreted as a response to lower ambient temperatures at higher altitude, an example of Bergmann's rule. In both A. sapiens and C. frontalis populations at higher altitude have higher thoracic temperatures independent of differences of body mass, suggestive of additional morphological or physiological adaptation to lower ambient temperatures. In A. sapiens there is no qualitative difference in body temperatures between males and females after controlling for body mass, while male C. frontalis have significantly lower thoracic temperatures than females of the species. This difference between A. sapiens and C. frontalis is discussed with reference to variation in mating systems found in the Apoidea.Abbreviations C.R.I. Christensen Research Institute - P.N.G. Papua New Guinea - SFT stable flight temperature - T _a ambient air temperature - T _ab abdominal temperature - T _dif the temperature difference between thorax and abdomen - T _ex thoracic temperature excess - VFT voluntary flight temperature     

Fasting endurance and cold resistance without hypothermia in a small predatory bird: the metabolic strategy of Tengmalm's owl,Aegolius funereus

The energetic adaptations of non-breeding Tengmalm's owls (Aegolius funereus) to temperature and fasting were studied during the birds' autumnal irruptions in western Finland. Allometric analysis (including literature data and two larger owl species measured in this study) indicates that the basal metabolic rate of owls is below the mean level of non-passerine birds. However, the basal metabolic rate of the 130-g Tengmalm's owl (1.13 W) is higher than in other owls of similar size. This is probably related to its northern distribution and nomadic life history. Relative to its size, Tengmalm's owl has excellent cold resistance due to effective insulation (lower critical temperature +10°C, minimum conductance 0.19 mW·cm^-2·°C^-1). Radiotelemetric measurements of body temperature showed that the level of body temperature is lower than for birds in general (39.4°C at zero activity) and that the amplitude of the diurnal cycle is also low (0.2–0.6°C). In contrast to many other small birds, Tengmalm's owls do not enter hypothermia during a 5-day fast at thermoneutrality or in cold. Moreover, while the metabolic rate per bird shows the expected mass-dependent decrease, the mass-specific rate decreases only slightly during the fast. In line with this, there was no decrease in the plasma triiodothyronine concentration during the fast in the owl, whereas a dramtic drop was observed in the pigeon and Japanese quail that were used as a reference. Despite this, the owl has an excellent capacity for fasting because of its ability to accumulate extensive fat depots and its low overall metabolic rate. Fasting reduced evaporative water loss to 50% of that in the fed state. Calculations show that the oxygen consumption observed in fasting birds would involve a production of metabolic water barely sufficient to compensate for evaporative water loss. The threat of dehydration may thus set a limit to the decrease in metabolic rate in fasting owls (owls rely totally on water either ingested with food or produced metabolically). We conclude that the metabolic strategy in Tengmalm's owl is largely dictated by an evolutionary pressure for fasting endurance. With the restrictions set by small body size and water economy, this bird has apparently taken these adaptations to an extreme. The constraints that preclude hypothermia, which could increase the capacity for fasting even more, remain unknown.Abbreviations BM body mass - BMR basal metabolic rate - EWL vaporative water loss - MR metabolic rate - T₃ triiodothyronine - T _a ambient temperature - T _b body temperature - VO₂ oxygen consumption     

Effect of thermal tachypnoea and of its mechanical or pharmacological inhibition on hypothalamic temperature in the sheep

The abrupt inhibition of breathing in the panting sheep, by mechanical blockage of the nostrils or by the injection of noradrenaline or carbachol into a lateral cerebral ventricle, causes an immediate rise in hypothalamic temperature, followed by a rise in that of the carotid artery blood.

This confirms that evaporation from the surfaces of the upper respiratory tract has an immediate and local effect on brain temperature.

The significance of this relation in a species which controls its core temperature particularly well is discussed.