Spatial distribution of nymphs of Scaphoideus titanus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in grapes, and evaluation of sequential sampling plans

The spatial distribution of the nymphs of Scaphoideus titanus Ball (Homoptera Cicadellidae), the vector of grapevine flavescence dorée (Candidatus Phytoplasma vitis, 16Sr-V), was studied by applying Taylor's power law. Studies were conducted from 2002 to 2005, in organic and conventional vineyards of Piedmont, northern Italy. Minimum sample size and fixed precision level stop lines were calculated to develop appropriate sampling plans. Model validation was performed, using independent field data, by means of Resampling Validation of Sample Plans (RVSP) resampling software. The nymphal distribution, analyzed via Taylor's power law, was aggregated, with b = 1.49. A sample of 32 plants was adequate at low pest densities with a precision level of D0 = 0.30; but for a more accurate estimate (D0 = 0.10), the required sample size needs to be 292 plants. Green's fixed precision level stop lines seem to be more suitable for field sampling: RVSP simulations of this sampling plan showed precision levels very close to the desired levels. However, at a prefixed precision level of 0.10, sampling would become too time-consuming, whereas a precision level of 0.25 is easily achievable. How these results could influence the correct application of the compulsory control of S. titanus and Flavescence dorée in Italy is discussed.     

Estimating acridid densities in grassland habitats: a comparison between presence-absence and abundance sampling designs

Sampling methods to estimate acridid density per surface area unit in grassland habitats were compared using presence-absence data and count data. Sampling plans based on 6 yr of surveys were devised to estimate the density of Chorthippus spp., Euchorthippus spp., and Calliptamus italicus L. These acridids represented >90% of species in the study area. Sampling plans based on count data provided a reasonable tool when densities were >1/m(2) and when the level of precision was 0.20-0.30. A binomial sampling plan can be used to estimate C. italicus density with a level of precision >or=0.28. Sampling characteristics, i.e., estimated mean, actual precision, and sample size, were established on validation data sets with bootstrapping analysis. Sampling costs were also calculated according to density-dependent functions. Comparison between binomial sampling and enumerative sampling of C. italicus showed that binomial sampling required less time than enumerative sampling when densities were 0.35. Plot area had no significant effect on sample variances of counts.     

Effects of reducing sample size on density estimates of citrus rust mite (Acari: Eriophyidae) on citrus fruit: simulated sampling

The consequence of reducing sample size on the accuracy and precision of estimates of citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead), densities on oranges was investigated. The sample unit was a 1-cm2 surface area on fruit. Sampling plans consisting of 360, 300, 200, 160, 80, 48, 36, or 20 samples per 4 ha were evaluated through computer simulations by using real count data from 32 data sets of 600 sample units per 4 ha. The original and reduced sampling plans were hierarchical with different numbers of sample areas per 4 ha, trees per area, fruit per tree, and samples per fruit. Individual estimates (n=100 simulations per data set) using each plan were sometimes considerably below or above target densities. In an original set of count data with a mean of six mites per cm2, simulations of 36 samples per 4 ha produced individual estimates ranging from one to 16 mites per cm2, whereas 80 samples per 4 ha produced estimates ranging from two to 10 mites per cm2. The plans consisting of 36 or more samples were projected to provide precision levels of 0.25 (SEM/mean) or better at densities of five or more mites per cm2 based on log-data, a projection that needs to be verified under real-grove situations. Each plan consistently provided mite detection in these sampling simulations except those consisting of 20 or 36 samples, which sometimes failed to detect mites when the target density was less than five mites per cm2. The study provided insight into the probable precision, accuracy and detection thresholds for eight candidate sampling plans varying from relatively low to high resource input.     

Soil carbon stocks and bulk density: spatial or cumulative mass coordinates as a basis of expression?

Accounting for CO₂ fluxes by determining changes in stocks of soil carbon (C) as a result of land use change is an option for complying nations under the Kyoto Protocol. The 1996 IPCC guidelines for C accounting recommend that soil C stocks to a depth of 30 cm be used in such accounting. However, the soil bulk density often changes with land use and the soil C per unit ground area to a fixed depth will also change even without any change in the mass fraction of C in dry soil. This problem will generally arise when soil C accounting is taken to a fixed depth (i.e. uses ‘spatial coordinates’). For accuracy in determining the land use change effects on soil C, soil sampling should be referred to a fixed dry soil mass per unit ground area (i.e. use ‘cumulative mass coordinates’). There has been intermittent literature‐discussion about this issue over several decades. Methods to accomplish C accounting on a mass coordinate basis, none of them accurate or efficient, have been suggested. Here, we propose a simple, accurate methodology for determining soil C stocks using cumulative mass coordinates, which does not involve repeat sampling trips, nominal specification of the location of boundaries between soil horizons, or independent sampling for determining soil bulk densities. Each core is taken a little (say 10 cm) below the nominal mass/depth required and the retrieved core is sliced into two at a point a little above the nominal mass/depth (say 10 cm above). An accurate determination of the depth of the core or slice is not needed, but an accurate determination of the dry mass of soil above and below the slice‐point is required. Linear interpolation between these two measurements is then used to estimate the cumulative soil C per unit ground area to the target dry soil mass per unit ground area. Even though this method eliminates the need for reporting soil bulk densities for C accounting, it is urged that the bulk densities and density changes still be routinely reported. This is because such information is of fundamental importance for understanding and predicting the movement of fluids and substances carried in them within the soil and between the soil and the environment. Hence, these data are likely to be of fundamental importance in developing our future understanding and predictive capacity of soil C changes with land use change.     

Spatial pattern and sequential sampling of squash bug (Heteroptera: Coreidae) adults in watermelon

Spatial distribution patterns of adult squash bugs were determined in watermelon, Citrullus lanatus (Thunberg) Matsumura and Nakai, during 2001 and 2002. Results of analysis using Taylor's power law regression model indicated that squash bugs were aggregated in watermelon. Taylor's power law provided a good fit with r2 = 0.94. A fixed precision sequential sampling plan was developed for estimating adult squash bug density at fixed precision levels in watermelon. The plan was tested using a resampling simulation method on nine and 13 independent data sets ranging in density from 0.15 to 2.52 adult squash bugs per plant. Average estimated means obtained in 100 repeated simulation runs were within the 95% CI of the true means for all the data. Average estimated levels of precision were similar to the desired level of precision, particularly when the sampling plan was tested on data having an average mean density of 1.19 adult squash bugs per plant. Also, a sequential sampling for classifying adult squash bug density as below or above economic threshold was developed to assist in the decision-making process. The classification sampling plan is advantageous in that it requires smaller sample sizes to estimate the population status when the population density differs greatly from the action threshold. However, the plan may require excessively large sample sizes when the density is close to the threshold. Therefore, an integrated sequential sampling plan was developed using a combination of a fixed precision and classification sequential sampling plans. The integration of sampling plans can help reduce sampling requirements.     

淀山湖鱼类生物多样性调查样本量的优化设计

样本量大小影响估算鱼类种群动态和鱼类群落特征的准确性和精确度.本文以淀山湖渔业资源调查为例,研究估算淀山湖鱼类群落特征所需的样本量大小.2010年7月—2011年6月研究期间每月进行一次淀山湖渔业资源调查,共捕获14科45种鱼类.利用重采样方法,估算淀山湖渔业资源调查最优调查频次和最佳站点数.结果表明: 在淀山湖渔业资源调查中,站点数和调查频次呈负相关关系;保持95%的探测率探测90%的物种,每年调查11和12次相应需要设置21和19个站点.Shannon多样性指数随着每次调查站点数的增多而变大,增长到一定程度之后逐渐趋于稳定.淀山湖鱼类群落的物种多样性调查最佳站点数为21.本文的研究方法和结果可以为其他类似研究提供借鉴.     

Cost and precision in a stream sampling program

Nomograms relating fixed, variable and total costs (time) to sample size and precision are presented for use in research planning. Time costs for a survey of a Montana, U.S.A., stream were dominated by fixed costs and the laboratory component of variable costs while variable field costs were small. Reductions in both fixed and variable costs influence precision of low-budget survey sampling while reduction of variable costs in large budget research sampling has more effect on total cost than on precision.     

Sampling methods, dispersion patterns, and fixed precision sequential sampling plans for western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and cotton fleahoppers (Hemiptera: Miridae) in cotton

A 2-yr field study was conducted to examine the effectiveness of two sampling methods (visual and plant washing techniques) for western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), and five sampling methods (visual, beat bucket, drop cloth, sweep net, and vacuum) for cotton fleahopper, Pseudatomoscelis seriatus (Reuter), in Texas cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.), and to develop sequential sampling plans for each pest. The plant washing technique gave similar results to the visual method in detecting adult thrips, but the washing technique detected significantly higher number of thrips larvae compared with the visual sampling. Visual sampling detected the highest number of fleahoppers followed by beat bucket, drop cloth, vacuum, and sweep net sampling, with no significant difference in catch efficiency between vacuum and sweep net methods. However, based on fixed precision cost reliability, the sweep net sampling was the most cost-effective method followed by vacuum, beat bucket, drop cloth, and visual sampling. Taylor's Power Law analysis revealed that the field dispersion patterns of both thrips and fleahoppers were aggregated throughout the crop growing season. For thrips management decision based on visual sampling (0.25 precision), 15 plants were estimated to be the minimum sample size when the estimated population density was one thrips per plant, whereas the minimum sample size was nine plants when thrips density approached 10 thrips per plant. The minimum visual sample size for cotton fleahoppers was 16 plants when the density was one fleahopper per plant, but the sample size decreased rapidly with an increase in fleahopper density, requiring only four plants to be sampled when the density was 10 fleahoppers per plant. Sequential sampling plans were developed and validated with independent data for both thrips and cotton fleahoppers.     

Superiority of a soil debris isolation method over a beet seed colonization method for assay of Rhizoctonia solani at high soil inoculum densities.

A quantitative soil debris isolation method (all debris from known weight of soil plated) and a garden beet seed saprophytic colonization method were compared over a 1-year period for assaying Rhizoctonia solani population. Four fields of different soil textures were selected. Within each field four areas of healthy and four areas of diseases (rhizoctonia root and crown rot) sugarbeets were sampled bimonthly from August 1976 until June 1977. The maximum numbers of R. solani colonies obtained by the debris method were 2 per gram of soil in areas of healthy beets, and 11 per gram of soil in areas of diseased sugarbeets. At such high inoculum densities the beet seed colonization method underestimated R. solani populations, because the inoculum per unit of soil exceeded the numbers of beet seeds per unit of soil available for colonization. Modifications of the beet seed method did not significantly alter results of colonization assays. Ranked correlation comparisons of assay methods yielded r = 0.81 for all data.     

基于土芯法的亚热带常绿阔叶林细根空间变异与取样数量估计

树木细根具有高度空间异质性,确定合理的细根取样策略是林木细根研究的前提。通过在福建省三明米槠天然常绿阔叶林内随机钻取96个土芯,分析细根生物量和形态特征的空间变异特征,并估计各指标所需的取样数量。结果表明:(1)随着径级增加,细根各指标变异系数增大,相应的取样数量增加;(2)随着土壤深度增加,单位面积细根生物量变异程度和相应的取样数量均增加。在置信水平为95%、精度为80%的条件下,直径为0-1 mm和1-2 mm的细根,分别采集16和42个样品可以满足测定单位面积细根生物量,采集17和31个样品可以满足测定单位面积细根长度,采集25和33个样品可以满足测定单位面积细根表面积。Shapiro-Wilk检验表明,除表层土壤0-1 mm细根单位面积生物量符合正态分布外,其余细根生物量和形态指标数据均不符合正态分布。研究结果为亚热带常绿阔叶林细根的合理取样提供了科学依据。     

Sequential sampling and biorational chemistries for management of lepidopteran pests of vegetable amaranth in the Caribbean

Although vegetable amaranth, Amaranthus viridis L. and A. dubius Mart. ex Thell., production and economic importance is increasing in diversified peri-urban farms in Jamaica, lepidopteran herbivory is common even during weekly pyrethroid applications. We developed and validated a sampling plan, and investigated insecticides with new modes of action, for a complex of five species (Pyralidae: Spoladea recurvalis (F.), Herpetogramma bipunctalis (F.), Noctuidae: Spodoptera exigua (Hubner), S. frugiperda (J. E. Smith), and S. eridania Stoll). Significant within-plant variation occurred with H. bipunctalis, and a six-leaf sample unit including leaves from the inner and outer whorl was selected to sample all species. Larval counts best fit a negative binomial distribution. We developed a sequential sampling plan using a threshold of one larva per sample unit and the fitted distribution with a k(c) of 0.645. When compared with a fixed plan of 25 plants, sequential sampling recommended the same management decision on 87.5%, additional samples on 9.4%, and gave inaccurate recommendations on 3.1% of 32 farms, while reducing sample size by 46%. Insecticide frequency was reduced 33-60% when management decisions were based on sampled data compared with grower-standards, with no effect on crop damage. Damage remained high or variable (10-46%) with pyrethroid applications. Lepidopteran control was dramatically improved with ecdysone agonists (tebufenozide) or microbial metabolites (spinosyns and emamectin benzoate). This work facilitates resistance management efforts concurrent with the introduction of newer modes of action for lepidopteran control in leafy vegetable production in the Caribbean.     

Spatial distribution and sampling plans for Thrips palmi (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) infesting fall potato in Korea

The spatial distribution of adult and immature Thrips palmi Karny on fall potato, Solanum tuberosum L., on Cheju Island, Korea, was studied over a 2-yr period by visually inspecting potato leaves. The majority of thrips collected from the leaves were observed in the top one-third of the plant. The within-field spatial patterns of adults and immature thrips were aggregated. The slopes and intercepts of Taylor's power law did not differ among adults and immature thrips. A fixed-precision-level sampling plan was developed using the parameters from Taylor's power law and was tested with resampling simulations using eight independent data sets. Over a wide range of densities, the simulation demonstrated that actual sampling precision (d = SEM/mean) values at d = 0.25 averaged < 0.24 in all cases. A binomial sampling plan for estimating mean density was developed using an empirical model evaluated at tally thresholds (the minimum number of insects present before a leaf is considered infested) of one, three, five, and eight thrips per leaf. Increasing sampling size had little effect on the precision of the estimated mean regardless of tally threshold (T). However, increasing T had a dramatic effect on precision. The best tally threshold for estimating thrips density based on the applicable density ranges and the precision of the model was T = 5. A binomial sampling plan with a tally threshold of five and a fixed sample size of 30 leaves should be an effective replacement for enumerative counts when thrips average < 10 per leaf.     

Binomial sampling to estimate rust mite (Acari: Eriophyidae) densities on orange fruit

Binomial sampling based on the proportion of samples infested was investigated for estimating mean densities of citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead), and Aculops pelekassi (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), on oranges, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. Data for the investigation were obtained by counting the number of motile mites within 600 sample units (each unit a 1-cm2 surface area per fruit) across a 4-ha block of trees (32 blocks total): five areas per 4 ha, five trees per area, 12 fruit per tree, and two samples per fruit. A significant (r2 = 0.89), linear relationship was found between ln(-ln(1 -Po)) and ln(mean), where P0 is the proportion of samples with more than zero mites. The fitted binomial parameters adequately described a validation data set from a sampling plan consisting of 192 samples. Projections indicated the fitted parameters would apply to sampling plans with as few as 48 samples, but reducing sample size resulted in an increase of bootstrap estimates falling outside expected confidence limits. Although mite count data fit the binomial model, confidence limits for mean arithmetic predictions increased dramatically as proportion of samples infested increased. Binomial sampling using a tally threshold of 0 therefore has less value when proportions of samples infested are large. Increasing the tally threshold to two mites marginally improved estimates at larger densities. Overall, binomial sampling for a general estimate of mite densities seemed to be a viable alternative to absolute counts of mites per sample for a grower using a low management threshold such as two or three mites per sample.     

Sequential sampling plan for Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) on horse chestnut tree

A fixed precision sequential sampling plan for estimating the density of the horse chestnut, Aesculus hippocastanum L., leafminer Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) was developed. Data were collected from 2002 to 2004 in Turin, northwestern Italy, with the aim of developing a sampling strategy for estimating populations of C. ohridella mines. Taylor's power law was used as a regression model. Sampling parameters were estimated from 216 data sets, and an additional 110 independent data sets were used to validate the fixed precision sequential sampling plan with resampling software. Covariance analysis indicated that there were not significant differences in the coefficient of Taylor's power law between heights of the foliage, months, and years. Dispersion patterns of C. ohridella were determined to be aggregated. The parameters of the Taylor's power law were used to calculate minimum sample sizes and sampling stop lines for different precision levels. Considering a mean density value of five mines per leaf, an average sample number of only 49 leaves was necessary to achieve a desired precision level of 0.25. As the precision level was increased to 0.10, the average sample size increased to 303 leaves. The sequential sampling plan should provide an effective management of C. ohridella in the urban areas, minimizing sampling time and cost, and at the same should be an effective tool to reduce insecticide applications and prevent the esthetic damage.     

Determining Consistency of Spatial Dispersion of Nematodes in Small Plots

Nematode population densities in field plots were estimated by collecting samples consisting of 12 soil cores. Plots encompassed a variety of plant hosts and sampling dates, and provided data on the population densities of seven species of plant-parasitic nematodes. Three separate samples were collected per plot on each sampling date to obtain estimates of the mean and variance of numbers for each species. For each nematode species, these estimates were used to derive the Taylor''s Power Law regression over plots having identical hosts and sampling dates. For some nematode species, comparisons of regression equations among different sampling dates on the same host revealed similarities in values of a and b from Taylor''s Power Law. Parameters of Taylor''s Power Law relationships were used to develop sampling plans and to obtain estimates of sample precision. Precision estimates from specific and general sampling plans are illustrated for Belonolaimus longicaudatus.     

Root proliferation in perennial grasses of low and high palatability

Root proliferation of desirable (Stipa clarazii andS. tenuis) and undesirable (S.ambigua)perennial grasses was studied in semiarid rangelands of Central Argentina(40°39S, 62°54W) in 1998. On 17 September, soil coreswereremoved from the edge of the plant, metal structures lined with screen mesh(hereafter called bags) were buried in the holes, and root-free soil was placedinto these structures. Numbers of green tillers and circumference per plant hadpreviously been determined. Since plants were of unequal size among species,root length and root dry weight data are reported on a per green tiller basis.Half of the plants was defoliated to 5 cm stubble height on 17September and/or 12 October, while the other half remained undefoliated(controls). Bags were destructively harvested either 20 days after the firstdefoliation (first sampling) or 56 days after the second defoliation (secondsampling) by digging out soil very carefully around each bag. Roots were washedfrom soil, root length estimated by the line intercept method, root dry weightdetermined after oven-drying, and root length per unit root dry weightcalculated from the two measured variables. Root length and dry weight weremorethan 96% greater on defoliated and undefoliated plants ofS. clarazii than on those of S.tenuisor S. ambigua for both sampling dates. Root length perunitroot dry weight, however, was more than 43% greater (p < 0.05) inS. tenuis than in S. clarazii andS. ambigua during the second sampling. Defoliated plantshada similar root length and root dry weight than undefoliated plants in all threespecies, although plants of S. tenuis defoliated twiceshowed a greater (p < 0.05) root length than undefoliated controls. Rootlength and root dry weight were similar between sampling periods, except onundefoliated plants of S. tenuis which had a greater (p<0.05) root length and root dry weight at the first than at the second sampling.Although root length per unit root dry weight may be greater inS. tenuis than in S. clarazii andS. ambigua, greater root length and dry weight increasesinS. clarazii after defoliation appear determinant incontributing to explain its greater competitive ability and defoliationtolerance when compared with the other two species.Nomenclature of taxa followed.     

Census of the Kafue lechwe by aerial stratified sampling

The Kafue lechwe population of the Kafue Flats, Zambia, was counted four times within a 26-month period (April 1970-June 1972) by aerial stratified random sampling. The censuses gave good agreement which did not differ statistically. By combining the data for the three most precise surveys, the estimated population is 93 975 with 95% confidence limits of ± 8563 (or ± 9-1%). A method of sampling was used which is based on calculation of animal densities on a linear basis, instead of on densities per unit area. This method has several advantages and is discussed in relation to the problems involved in aerial census. The past and present status of the Kafue lechwe population is reviewed.     

Point–count method for estimating rock ptarmigan spring density in the Pyrenean chain

This paper describes a census technique that gives estimates of rock ptarmigan cocks’ number per unit area during the breeding season. This method originated from the need for an effective technique for estimating bird densities in mountainous and inaccessible zones like the Pyrenean chain. The bird census was carried out using a point–count method, which is recommended for uneven areas. To maximize sampling efficiency, we established sampling points at <500-m distances, in order to detect a maximum of calling birds within the sample areas. Birds localized at distances >250 m were excluded. We postulate that all birds are recorded in a 250-m radius around the observer. We carried out counts of calling rock ptarmigan cocks in the border between the Principality of Andorra and Ariège Department, France, from April to June during three consecutive years (2005–2007). The estimated spring density of 10.4 cocks per 100 ha was higher than densities reported in literature, in other parts of the Pyrénées and the Alps. Our study provides a useful reference for future monitoring of this species in its mountainous distribution range.     

Estimating density of ant nests using distance sampling

The quantification of ant nest densities is a useful but challenging task given the group’s high abundance and diversity of nesting sites. We present a new application of a distance-sampling method which follows standard distance analytical procedures, but introduces a sampling innovation that is particularly useful for ants; instead of having an observer look for ants we let ants find a bait station and measure the distances covered between nest and station. We test this method by estimating the density of epigaeic ant nests in an Amazon tropical forest site near Manaus, Brazil. We distributed 220 baits of canned sardine mixed with cassava flour among 10, 210-m long transects in old-growth upland forest. Forty-five minutes after baiting, we followed the ants’ trails and measured the linear distance between the bait and each nest’s entrance. We then used the freely available program DISTANCE to estimate the number of nests per unit area while accounting for the effect of distance on the probability that a colony will find a bait. There were found 38 species nesting in 287 different colonies, with an estimated 2.66 nests/m². This estimate fell within the 95 % confidence bounds of nest density predicted for a similar number of species based on a literature survey of ant species richness and nest density. Our sampling solution, however, takes less than 30 % of the time used by conventional sampling approaches for a similar area, with the advantage that it produces not only a point estimate but also a quantification of uncertainty about density.