Exercise training improves peripheral chemoreflex function in heart failure rabbits.

An enhancement of peripheral chemoreflex sensitivity contributes to sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic heart failure (CHF) rabbits. The enhanced chemoreflex function in CHF involves augmented carotid body (CB) chemoreceptor activity via upregulation of the angiotensin II (ANG II) type 1 (AT(1))-receptor pathway and downregulation of the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)-nitric oxide (NO) pathway in the CB. Here we investigated whether exercise training (EXT) normalizes the enhanced peripheral chemoreflex function in CHF rabbits and possible mechanisms mediating this effect. EXT partially, but not fully, normalized the exaggerated baseline renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and the response of RSNA to hypoxia in CHF rabbits. EXT also decreased the baseline CB nerve single-fiber discharge (4.9 +/- 0.4 vs. 7.7 +/- 0.4 imp/s at Po(2) = 103 +/- 2.3 Torr) and the response to hypoxia (20.6 +/- 1.1 vs. 36.3 +/- 1.3 imp/s at Po(2) = 41 +/- 2.2 Torr) from CB chemoreceptors in CHF rabbits, which could be reversed by treatment of the CB with ANG II or a nNOS inhibitor. Our results also showed that NO concentration and protein expression of nNOS were increased in the CBs from EXT + CHF rabbits, compared with that in CHF rabbits. On the other hand, elevated ANG II concentration and AT(1)-receptor overexpression of the CBs in CHF state were blunted by EXT. These results indicate that EXT normalizes the CB chemoreflex in CHF by preventing an increase in afferent CB chemoreceptor activity. EXT reverses the alterations in the nNOS-NO and ANG II-AT(1)-receptor pathways in the CB responsible for chemoreceptor sensitization in CHF.     

Enhanced peripheral chemoreflex function in conscious rabbits with pacing-induced heart failure.

The present study aimed to determine whether peripheral and/or central chemoreflex function is altered in chronic heart failure (CHF) and whether altered chemoreflex function contributes to sympathetic activation in CHF. A rabbit model of pacing-induced CHF was employed. The development of CHF (3-4 wk of pacing) was characterized by an enlarged heart, an attenuated contractility, and an elevated central venous pressure. Renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and minute volume (MV) of ventilation in response to stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors by isocapnic/hypoxic gases were measured in the conscious state. It was found that the baseline RSNA at normoxia was higher in CHF rabbits than in sham rabbits (35. 00 +/- 4.03 vs. 20.75 +/- 2.87% of maximum, P < 0.05). Moreover, the magnitudes of changes in RSNA and MV in response to stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptors and the slopes of RSNA-arterial PO2 and MV-arterial PO2 curves were greater in CHF than in sham rabbits. Inhibition of the peripheral chemoreceptors by inhalation of 100% O2 decreased RSNA in CHF but not in sham rabbits. The central chemoreflex function, as evaluated by the responses of RSNA and MV to hyperoxic/hypercapnic gases, was not different between sham and CHF rabbits. These data suggest that an enhancement of the peripheral chemoreflex occurs in the rabbit model of pacing-induced CHF and that the enhanced peripheral chemoreflex function contributes to the sympathetic activation in the CHF state.     

延髓头端腹外侧区一氧化氮与慢性心力衰竭大鼠心交感传入反射物的关系

为观察延髓头端腹外侧区(rostral ventrolateral medulla,RVLM)一氧化氮(N0)在慢性心力衰竭(chronic heart failure,CHF)大鼠增强的心交感传入反射(cardiac sympathetic afferent reflex,CSAR)中的作用,实验在去压力感受器神经支配的结扎冠状动脉诱发的CHF大鼠和假手术SD大鼠进行,记录电刺激心交感传入神经中枢端前后的血压和肾交感神经活动(renal sympathetic nerve activity,RSNA)变化以评价CSAR。结果显示：(1)CHF大鼠的CSAR显著增强;(2)RVLM微量注射NO合酶(NOS)抑制剂MeTC增强对照组大鼠的CSAR但对CHF大鼠的CSAR无显著影响;(3)RVLM微量注射NO供体S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine(SNAP)抑制CHF大鼠增强的CSAR;(4)S-methyl-L-thioeitruline（MeTC)仅增强对照组大鼠基础水平的RSNA,而SNAP抑制对照组和CHF大鼠基础水平的RSNA。结果表明RVLM中内源性NO的减少是导致CHF大鼠CSAR增强的重要机制之一。     

延髓头端腹外侧区一氧化氮与慢性心力衰竭大鼠心交感传入反射的关系

为观察延髓头端腹外侧区(rostral ventrolateral medulla,RVLM)一氧化氮(NO)在慢性心力衰竭(chronic heartfailure,CHF)大鼠增强的心交感传入反射(cardiac sympathetic afferent reflex,CSAR)中的作用,实验在去压力感受器神经支配的结扎冠状动脉诱发的CHF大鼠和假手术SD大鼠进行,记录电刺激心交感传入神经中枢端前后的血压和肾交感神经活动(renal sympathetic nerve activity,RSNA)变化以评价CSAR.结果显示:(1)CHF大鼠的CSAR显著增强;(2)RVLM微量注射NO合酶(NOS)抑制剂MeTC增强对照组大鼠的CSAR但对CHF大鼠的CSAR无显著影响;(3)RVLM微量注射NO供体S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine(SNAP)抑制CHF大鼠增强的CSAR;(4)S-methyl-L-thiocitmline(MeTC)仅增强对照组大鼠基础水平的RSNA,而SNAP抑制对照组和CHF大鼠基础水平的RSNA.结果表明RVLM中内源性NO的减少是导致CHF大鼠CSAR增强的重要机制之.     

Chronic endothelin-1 blockade reduces sympathetic nerve activity in rabbits with heart failure

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is elevated in chronic heart failure (CHF). In this study, we determined the effects of chronic ET-1 blockade on renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) in conscious rabbits with pacing-induced CHF. Rabbits were chronically paced at 320--340 beats/min for 3--4 wk until clinical and hemodynamic signs of CHF were present. Resting RSNA and arterial baroreflex control of RSNA were determined. Responses were determined before and after the ET-1 antagonist L-754,142 (a combined ET(A) and ET(B) receptor antagonist, n = 5) was administered by osmotic minipump infusion (0.5 mg. kg(-1) x h(-1) for 48 h). In addition, five rabbits with CHF were treated with the specific ET(A) receptor antagonist BQ-123. Baseline RSNA (expressed as a percentage of the maximum nerve activity during sodium nitroprusside infusion) was significantly higher (58.3 +/- 4.9 vs. 27.0 +/- 1.0, P < 0.001), whereas baroreflex sensitivity was significantly lower in rabbits with CHF compared with control (3.09 +/- 0.19 vs. 6.04 +/- 0.73, P < 0.001). L-754,142 caused a time-dependent reduction in arterial pressure and RSNA in rabbits with CHF. In addition, BQ-123 caused a reduction in resting RSNA. For both compounds, RSNA returned to near control levels 24 h after removal of the minipump. These data suggest that ET-1 contributes to sympathoexcitation in the CHF state. Enhancement of arterial baroreflex sensitivity may further contribute to sympathoinhibition after ET-1 blockade in heart failure.     

Enhanced activity of carotid body chemoreceptors in rabbits with heart failure: role of nitric oxide.

An enhanced peripheral chemoreflex has been documented in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF). This study aimed to examine the characteristics of carotid body (CB) chemoreceptors in response to isocapnic hypoxia in a rabbit model of pacing-induced CHF and to evaluate the possible role that nitric oxide (NO) plays in the altered characteristics. The chemosensitive characteristics of the CB were evaluated by recording single-unit activity from the carotid sinus nerve in both an intact and a vascularly isolated preparation. It was found that the baseline discharge under normoxia (intact preparation: arterial PO2 90-95 Torr; isolated preparation: PO2 100-110 Torr) and the chemosensitivity in response to graded hypoxia (PO2 40-70 Torr) were enhanced in CHF vs. sham rabbits. These alterations were independent of the CB preparations (intact vs. isolated). NO synthase inhibition by Nomega-nitro-L-arginine increased the baseline discharge and the chemosensitivity in the intact preparation, whereas L-arginine (10(-5) M) inhibited the baseline discharge and the chemosensitivity in the isolated preparation in sham but not in CHF rabbits. S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, an NO donor, inhibited the baseline discharge and the chemosensitivity in both CB preparations in CHF rabbits but only in the isolated preparation in sham rabbits. The amount of NO produced in vitro by the CB under normoxia was less in CHF rabbits than in sham rabbits (P < 0.05). NO synthase-positive varicosities of nerve fibers within the CB were less in CHF rabbits than in sham rabbits (P < 0.05). These data indicate that an enhanced input from CB occurs in the rabbit model of pacing-induced CHF and that an impairment of NO production may contribute to this alteration.     

Influence of pontine A5 region on renal sympathetic nerve activity in conscious rabbits

The effects of inhibiting the neural activity in the pontine A5 region on renal sympathetic responses to baroreflex and/or chemoreflex activation were examined in conscious rabbits. Eight rabbits were chronically instrumented with guide cannulas for bilateral microinjections into the A5 area and an electrode for measuring renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). Baroreflex curves were obtained under conditions of normoxia and hypoxia (10% O(2) + 3% CO(2)) after injections into the A5 region of the GABA receptor agonist muscimol or vehicle solution. Under normoxia, injections of muscimol did not affect resting RSNA or blood pressure but increased the range of the RSNA baroreflex by 24 and 33% at doses of 175 or 875 pmol, respectively, without affecting the reflex gain. Hypoxia alone increased resting RSNA by 63%, as well as the range and gain of the RSNA baroreflex by 53 and 89%, respectively, without affecting blood pressure. However, under hypoxia, muscimol increased resting RSNA by 37 and 47% but decreased the gain of the RSNA baroreflex by 19 and 34% at doses of 175 or 875 pmol, respectively, without affecting the reflex range. The effects of muscimol on RSNA were mediated via changes in the amplitude of the sympathetic bursts, whereas burst frequency remained unaffected. These data suggest that the A5 region has a little tonic influence on RSNA in conscious rabbits but serves to limit the renal sympathetic responses to baroreceptor unloading or chemoreceptor stimulation. The different changes in the baroreflex range and gain evoked by muscimol under normoxia and hypoxia indicate that the A5 modulatory action may depend on the activity of the afferent inputs to this region.     

Amelioration of depressed cardiopulmonary reflex control of sympathetic nerve activity by short-term exercise training in male rabbits with heart failure.

The reflex regulation of sympathetic nerve activity has been demonstrated to be impaired in the chronic heart failure (CHF) state compared with the normal condition (Liu JL, Murakami H, and Zucker IH. Circ Res 82: 496-502, 1998). Exercise training (Ex) appears to be beneficial to patients with CHF and has been shown to reduce sympathetic outflow in this disease state (Hambrecht R, Hilbrich L, Erbs S, Gielen S, Fiehn E, Schoene N, and Schuler G. J Am Coll Cardiol 35: 706-713, 2000). We tested the hypothesis that Ex corrects the reduced cardiopulmonary (CP) reflex response to volume expansion in the CHF state. Normal, normal with Ex, CHF, and CHF with Ex (CHF-Ex) groups (n = 10-21) of male New Zealand White rabbits were studied. CHF was induced by chronic ventricular pacing. Rabbits were instrumented to record left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). Experiments were carried out with the animals in the conscious state. Volume expansion was performed with 6% dextran in normal saline at a rate of 5 ml/min to approximately 20% of estimated plasma volume without any significant effect on mean arterial pressure being exhibited. The relationships between RSNA and LVEDP and between RSNA and LVEDD were determined by linear regression; the slopes served as an index of CP reflex sensitivity. Normal rabbits exhibited a CP reflex sensitivity of -8.4 +/- 1.5%delta RSNA/mmHg. This value fell to 0.0 +/- 1.3%delta RSNA/mmHg in CHF rabbits (P < 0.001). Ex increased CP reflex sensitivity to -5.0 +/- 0.7%delta RSNA/mmHg in CHF-Ex rabbits (P < 0.05 compared with CHF). A similar trend was seen when related to the change in LVEDD. Furthermore, resting RSNA expressed as a percentage of maximum RSNA in response to cigarette smoke was also normalized by Ex in rabbits with CHF. Ex had no effect on these parameters in normal rabbits. These data confirm an impairment of CP reflex sensitivity and sympathoexcitation in CHF vs. normal animals. Ex substantially restored both CP reflex sensitivity and baseline RSNA in CHF animals. Thus Ex beneficially affects reflex regulation in CHF, thereby lowering resting sympathetic nerve activity.     

The [Ru(Hedta)NO](0.1-) system: structure, chemical reactivity and biological assays

The [Ru(II)(Hedta)NO(+)] complex is a diamagnetic species crystallizing in a distorted octahedral geometry, with the Ru-N(O) length 1.756(4) A and the RuNO angle 172.3(4) degrees . The complex contains one protonated carboxylate (pK(a)=2.7+/-0.1). The [Ru(II)(Hedta)NO(+)] complex undergoes a nitrosyl-centered one-electron reduction (chemical or electrochemical), with E(NO+/NO)=-0.31 V vs SCE (I=0.2 M, pH 1), yielding [Ru(II)(Hedta)NO](-), which aquates slowly: k(-NO)=2.1+/-0.4x10(-3) s(-1) (pH 1.0, I=0.2 M, CF(3)COOH/NaCF(3)COO, 25 degrees C). At pHs>12, the predominant species, [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-), reacts according to [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-)+2OH(-)-->[Ru(II)(edta)NO(2)](3-), with K(eq)=1.0+/-0.4 x 10(3) M(-2) (I=1.0 M, NaCl; T=25.0+/-0.1 degrees C). The rate-law is first order in each of the reactants for most reaction conditions, with k(OH(-))=4.35+/-0.02 M(-1)s(-1) (25.0 degrees C), assignable mechanistically to the elementary step comprising the attack of one OH(-) on [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-), with subsequent fast deprotonation of the [Ru(II)(edta)NO(2)H](2-) intermediate. The activation parameters were DeltaH(#)=60+/-1 kJ/mol, DeltaS(#)=-31+/-3 J/Kmol, consistent with a nucleophilic addition process between likely charged ions. In the toxicity up-and-down tests performed with Swiss mice, no death was observed in all the doses administered (3-9.08 x 10(-5) mol/kg). The biodistribution tests performed with Wistar male rats showed metal in the liver, kidney, urine and plasma. Eight hours after the injection no metal was detected in the samples. The vasodilator effect of [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-) was studied in aortic rings without endothelium, and was compared with sodium nitroprusside (SNP). The times of maximal effects of [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-) and SNP were 2 h and 12 min, respectively, suggesting that [Ru(II)(edta)NO](-) releases NO slowly to the medium in comparison with SNP.     

NO and endogenous angiotensin II interact in the generation of renal sympathetic nerve activity in conscious rats

Nitric oxide (NO) appears to inhibit sympathetic tone in anesthetized rats. However, whether NO tonically inhibits sympathetic outflow, or whether endogenous angiotensin II (ANG II) promotes NO-mediated sympathoinhibition in conscious rats is unknown. To address these questions, we determined the effects of NO synthase (NOS) inhibition on renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and heart rate (HR) in conscious, unrestrained rats on normal (NS), high-(HS), and low-sodium (LS) diets, in the presence and absence of an ANG II receptor antagonist (AIIRA). When arterial pressure was kept at baseline with intravenous hydralazine, NOS inhibition with l-NAME (10 mg/kg i.v.) resulted in a profound decline in RSNA, to 42 +/- 11% of control (P < 0.01), in NS animals. This effect was not sustained, and RSNA returned to control levels by 45 min postinfusion. l-NAME also caused bradycardia, from 432 +/- 23 to 372 +/- 11 beats/min postinfusion (P < 0.01), an effect, which, in contrast, was sustained 60 min postdrug. The effects of NOS inhibition on RSNA and HR did not differ between NS, HS, and LS rats. However, when LS and HS rats were pretreated with AIIRA, the initial decrease in RSNA after l-NAME infusion was absent in the LS rats, while the response in the HS group was unchanged by AIIRA. These findings indicate that, in contrast to our hypotheses, NOS activity provides a stimulatory input to RSNA in conscious rats, and that in LS animals, but not HS animals, this sympathoexcitatory effect of NO is dependent on the action of endogenous ANG II.     

Chronic nitric oxide synthase blockade desensitizes the heart to the negative metabolic effects of nitric oxide

The consequences of chronic nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blockade on the myocardial metabolic and guanylyl cyclase stimulatory effects of exogenous nitric oxide (NO) were determined. Thirty-three anesthetized open-chest rabbits were randomized into four groups: control, NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP, 10(-4 )M), NOS blocking agent N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 20 mg/kg/day) for 10 days followed by a 24 hour washout and L-NAME for 10 days followed by a 24 hour washout plus SNAP. Myocardial O(2) consumption was determined from coronary flow (microspheres) and O(2) extraction (microspectrophotometry). Cyclic GMP and guanylyl cyclase activity were determined by radioimmunoassay. There were no baseline metabolic, functional or hemodynamic differences between control and L-NAME treated rabbits. SNAP in controls caused a reduction in O(2) consumption (SNAP 5.9+/-0.6 vs. control 8.4+/-0.8 ml O(2)/min/100 g) and a rise in cyclic GMP (SNAP 18.3+/-3.8 vs. control 10.4+/-0.9 pmol/g). After chronic L-NAME treatment, SNAP caused no significant changes in O(2) consumption (SNAP 7.1+/-0.8 vs. control 6.4+/-0.7) or cyclic GMP (SNAP 14.2+/-1.8 vs. control 12.1+/-1.3). In controls, guanylyl cyclase activity was significantly stimulated by SNAP (216.7+/-20.0 SNAP vs. 34.4+/-2.5 pmol/mg/min base), while this increase was blunted after L-NAME (115.9+/-24.5 SNAP vs. 24.9+/-4.7 base). These results demonstrated that chronic NOS blockade followed by washout blunts the response to exogenous NO, with little effect on cyclic GMP or myocardial O(2) consumption. This was related to reduced guanylyl cyclase activity after chronic L-NAME. These results suggest that, unlike many receptor systems, the NO-cyclic GMP signal transduction system becomes downregulated upon chronic inhibition.     

Altered nitric oxide mechanism within the paraventricular nucleus contributes to the augmented carotid body chemoreflex in heart failure

Our previous study demonstrated a contribution of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus in the processing of the carotid body (CB) chemoreflex. Nitric oxide (NO) (within the PVN), known to modulate autonomic function, is altered in rats with heart failure (HF). Therefore, the goal of the present study was to examine the influence of endogenous and exogenous NO within the PVN on the sympathoexcitatory component of the peripheral chemoreflex in normal and HF states. We measured mean arterial blood pressure, heart rate, renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA), and phrenic nerve activity (PNA) in sham-operated and HF rats (6-8 wk after coronary artery ligation) after incremental doses of potassium cyanide (25-100 mug/kg iv). There was potentiation of the reflex responses in HF compared with sham-operated rats. Bilateral microinjection of an inhibitor of NO synthase, N(G)-monomethyl-l-arginine (50 pmol), into the PVN augmented the RSNA and PNA response to peripheral chemoreceptor stimulation in sham-operated rats but had no effect in HF rats. Conversely, bilateral microinjection of a NO donor, sodium nitroprusside (50 nmol), into the PVN attenuated the RSNA response of the peripheral chemoreflex in sham-operated rats but to a smaller extent in HF rats. These data indicate that 1) NO within the PVN plays an important role in the processing of the CB chemoreflex and 2) there is an impairment of the NO function within the PVN of HF rats, which contributes to an augmented peripheral chemoreflex and subsequent elevation of sympathetic activity in HF.     

Evidence of differential control of renal and lumbar sympathetic nerve activity in conscious rabbits

We have explored the possibility that renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and vasomotor sympathetic nerve activity are differentially regulated. We measured sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) to the kidney and the hind limb vasculature in seven conscious rabbits 6-8 days after the implantation of recording electrodes. Acute infusion of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (6 mg.kg(-1).min(-1) for 5 min) led to an increase in blood pressure (from 66 +/- 1 to 82 +/- 3 mmHg) and a decrease in heart rate (from 214 +/- 15 to 160 +/- 13 bpm). L-NAME administration caused a significantly greater decrease in RSNA than lumbar sympathetic nerve activity (LSNA) (to 68 +/- 14% vs. 84 +/- 4% of control values, respectively). Volume expansion (1.5 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) resulted in a significant decrease in RSNA to 66 +/- 7% of control levels but no change in LSNA (127 +/- 20%). There was no difference in the gain of the baroreflex curves between the LSNA and RSNA [maximum gain of -7.6 +/- 0.4 normalized units (nu)/mmHg for LSNA vs. -7.9 +/- 0.75 nu/mmHg for RSNA]. A hypoxic stimulus (10% O2 and 3% CO2) led to identical increases in both RSNA and LSNA (195 +/- 40% and 158 +/- 21% of control values, respectively). Our results indicate tailored differential control of RSNA and LSNA in response to acute stimuli.     

Renal responses to acute reflex activation of renal sympathetic nerve activity and renal denervation in secondary hypertension

We tested whether the responsiveness of the kidney to basal renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) or hypoxia-induced reflex increases in RSNA, is enhanced in angiotensin-dependent hypertension in rabbits. Mean arterial pressure, measured in conscious rabbits, was similarly increased (+16 +/- 3 mmHg) 4 wk after clipping the left (n = 6) or right (n = 5) renal artery or commencing a subcutaneous ANG II infusion (n = 9) but was not increased after sham surgery (n = 10). Under pentobarbital sodium anesthesia, reflex increases in RSNA (51 +/- 7%) and whole body norepinephrine spillover (90 +/- 17%), and the reductions in glomerular filtration rate (-27 +/- 5%), urine flow (-43 +/- 7%), sodium excretion (-40 +/- 7%), and renal cortical perfusion (-7 +/- 3%) produced by hypoxia were similar in normotensive and hypertensive groups. Hypoxia-induced increases in renal norepinephrine spillover tended to be less in hypertensive (1.1 +/- 0.5 ng/min) than normotensive (3.7 +/- 1.2 ng/min) rabbits, but basal overflow of endogenous and exogenous dihydroxyphenolglycol was greater. Renal plasma renin activity (PRA) overflow increased less in hypertensive (22 +/- 29 ng/min) than normotensive rabbits (253 +/- 88 ng/min) during hypoxia. Acute renal denervation did not alter renal hemodynamics or excretory function but reduced renal PRA overflow. Renal vascular and excretory responses to reflex increases in RSNA induced by hypoxia are relatively normal in angiotensin-dependent hypertension, possibly due to the combined effects of reduced neural norepinephrine release and increased postjunctional reactivity. In contrast, neurally mediated renin release is attenuated. These findings do not support the hypothesis that enhanced neural control of renal function contributes to maintenance of hypertension associated with activation of the renin-angiotensin system.     

Differential control of intrarenal blood flow during reflex increases in sympathetic nerve activity

The role of renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) in the physiological regulation of medullary blood flow (MBF) remains ill defined, yet regulation of MBF may be crucial to long-term arterial pressure regulation. To investigate the effects of reflex increases in RSNA on intrarenal blood flow distribution, we exposed pentobarbital sodium-anesthetized, artificially ventilated rabbits (n = 7) to progressive hypoxia while recording RSNA, cortical blood flow (CBF), and MBF using laser-Doppler flowmetry. Another group of animals with denervated kidneys (n = 6) underwent the same protocol. Progressive hypoxia (from room air to 16, 14, 12, and 10% inspired O(2)) significantly reduced arterial oxygen partial pressure (from 99 +/- 3 to 65 +/- 2, 51 +/- 2, 41 +/- 1, and 39 +/- 2 mmHg, respectively) and significantly increased RSNA (by 8 +/- 3, 44 +/- 25, 62 +/- 21, and 76 +/- 37%, respectively, compared with room air) without affecting mean arterial pressure. There were significant reductions in CBF (by 2 +/- 1, 5 +/- 2, 11 +/- 3, and 14 +/- 2%, respectively) in intact but not denervated rabbits. MBF was unaffected by hypoxia in either group. Thus moderate reflex increases in RSNA cause renal cortical vasoconstriction, but not at vascular sites regulating MBF.     

Roles of nitric oxide and angiotensin II in the impaired baroreflex gain of pregnancy

The present study tested the hypothesis that nitric oxide (NO) contributes to impaired baroreflex gain of pregnancy and that this action is enhanced by angiotensin II. To test these hypotheses, we quantified baroreflex control of heart rate in nonpregnant and pregnant conscious rabbits before and after: 1) blockade of NO synthase (NOS) with Nomega-nitro-L-arginine (20 mg/kg iv); 2) blockade of the angiotensin II AT1 receptor with L-158,809 (5 microg x kg(-1) x min(-1) iv); 3) infusion of angiotensin II (1 ng x kg(-1) x min(-1) nonpregnant, 1.6-4 ng x kg(-1) x min(-1) pregnant iv); 4) combined blockade of angiotensin II AT(1) receptors and NOS; and 5) combined infusion of angiotensin II and blockade of NOS. To determine the potential role of brain neuronal NOS (nNOS), mRNA and protein levels were measured in the paraventricular nucleus, nucleus of the solitary tract, caudal ventrolateral medulla, and rostral ventrolateral medulla in pregnant and nonpregnant rabbits. The decrease in baroreflex gain observed in pregnant rabbits (from 23.3 +/- 3.6 to 7.1 +/- 0.9 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1), P < 0.05) was not reversed by NOS blockade (to 8.3 +/- 2.5 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1)), angiotensin II blockade (to 5.0 +/- 1.1 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1)), or combined blockade (to 12.3 +/- 4.8 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1)). Angiotensin II infusion with (to 5.7 +/- 1.0 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1)) or without (to 8.4 +/- 2.4 beats x min(-1) x mmHg(-1)) NOS blockade also failed to improve baroreflex gain in pregnant or nonpregnant rabbits. In addition, nNOS mRNA and protein levels in cardiovascular brain regions were not different between nonpregnant and pregnant rabbits. Therefore, we conclude that NO, either alone or via an interaction with angiotensin II, is not responsible for decrease in baroreflex gain during pregnancy.     

Exercise training improves endogenous nitric oxide mechanisms within the paraventricular nucleus in rats with heart failure

Previously, we have demonstrated that an altered endogenous nitric oxide (NO) mechanism within the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) contributes to increased renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) in heart failure (HF) rats. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of exercise training (ExT) in improving the endogenous NO mechanism within the PVN involved in the regulation of RSNA in rats with HF. ExT significantly restored the decreased number of neuronal NO synthase (nNOS)-positive neurons in the PVN (129 +/- 17 vs. 99 +/- 6). nNOS mRNA expression and protein levels in the PVN were also significantly increased in HF-ExT rats compared with HF-sedentary rats. To examine the functional role of NO within the PVN, an inhibitor of NOS, N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, was microinjected into the PVN. Dose-dependent increases in RSNA, arterial blood pressure (BP), and heart rate (HR) were produced in all rats. There was a blunted increase in these parameters in HF rats compared with the sham-operated rats. ExT significantly augmented RSNA responses in rats with HF (33% vs. 20% at the highest dose), thus normalizing the responses. The NO donor sodium nitroprusside, microinjected into the PVN, produced dose-dependent decreases in RSNA, BP, and HR in both sham and HF rats. ExT significantly improved the blunted decrease in RSNA in HF rats (36% vs. 17% at the highest dose). In conclusion, our data indicate that ExT improves the altered NO mechanism within the PVN and restores NO-mediated changes in RSNA in rats with HF.     

Sympathetic nerve responses to muscle contraction and stretch in ischemic heart failure

Congestive heart failure (CHF) induces abnormal regulation of peripheral blood flow during exercise. Previous studies have suggested that a reflex from contracting muscle is disordered in this disease. However, there has been very little investigation of the muscle reflex regulating sympathetic outflows in CHF. Myocardial infarction (MI) was induced by the coronary artery ligation in rats. Echocardiography was performed to determine fractional shortening (FS), an index of the left ventricular function. We examined renal and lumbar sympathetic nerve activities (RSNA and LSNA, respectively) during 1-min repetitive (1- to 4-s stimulation to relaxation) contraction or stretch of the triceps surae muscles. During these interventions, the RSNA and LSNA responded synchronously as tension was developed. The RSNA and LSNA responses to contraction were significantly greater in MI rats (n = 13) with FS <30% than in control animals (n = 13) with FS >40% (RSNA: +49 +/- 7 vs. +19 +/- 4 a.u., P < 0.01; LSNA: +28 +/- 7 vs. +8 +/- 2 a.u., P < 0.01) at the same tension development. Stretch also increased the RSNA and LSNA to a larger degree in MI (n = 13) than in control animals (n = 13) (RSNA: +36 +/- 6 vs. +19 +/- 3 a.u., P < 0.05; LSNA: +24 +/- 3 vs. +9 +/- 2 a.u., P < 0.01). The data demonstrate that CHF exaggerates sympathetic nerve responses to muscle contraction as well as stretch. We suggest that muscle afferent-mediated sympathetic outflows contribute to the abnormal regulation of peripheral blood flow seen during exercise in CHF.     

The macrocyclic effect and vasodilation response based on the photoinduced nitric oxide release from trans-[RuCl(tetraazamacrocycle)NO](2+)

Irradiation of trans-[RuCl(cyclam)(NO)](2+), cyclam is 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane, at pHs 1-7.4, with near UV light results in the release of NO and formation of trans-[Ru(III)Cl(OH)(cyclam)](+) with pH dependent quantum yields (from approximately 0.01 to 0.16 mol Einstein(-1)) lower than that for trans-[RuCl([15]aneN(4))(NO)](2+), [15]aneN(4) is 1,4,8,12-tetaazacyclopentadecane, (0.61 mol Einstein(-1)). After irradiation with 355 nm light, the trans-[RuCl([15]aneN(4))(NO)](2+) induces relaxation of the aortic ring, whereas the trans-[RuCl(cyclam)(NO)](2+) complex does not. The relaxation observed with trans-[RuCl([15]aneN(4))(NO)](2+) is consistent with a larger quantum yield of release of NO from this complex.     

Short-term intermittent hypoxia enhances sympathetic responses to continuous hypoxia in humans.

Short-term intermittent hypoxia leads to sustained sympathetic activation and a small increase in blood pressure in healthy humans. Because obstructive sleep apnea, a condition associated with intermittent hypoxia, is accompanied by elevated sympathetic activity and enhanced sympathetic chemoreflex responses to acute hypoxia, we sought to determine whether intermittent hypoxia also enhances chemoreflex activity in healthy humans. To this end, we measured the responses of muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA, peroneal microneurography) to arterial chemoreflex stimulation and deactivation before and following exposure to a paradigm of repetitive hypoxic apnea (20 s/min for 30 min; O(2) saturation nadir 81.4 +/- 0.9%). Compared with baseline, repetitive hypoxic apnea increased MSNA from 113 +/- 11 to 159 +/- 21 units/min (P = 0.001) and mean blood pressure from 92.1 +/- 2.9 to 95.5 +/- 2.9 mmHg (P = 0.01; n = 19). Furthermore, compared with before, following intermittent hypoxia the MSNA (units/min) responses to acute hypoxia [fraction of inspired O(2) (Fi(O(2))) 0.1, for 5 min] were enhanced (pre- vs. post-intermittent hypoxia: +16 +/- 4 vs. +49 +/- 10%; P = 0.02; n = 11), whereas the responses to hyperoxia (Fi(O(2)) 0.5, for 5 min) were not changed significantly (P = NS; n = 8). Thus 30 min of intermittent hypoxia is capable of increasing sympathetic activity and sensitizing the sympathetic reflex responses to hypoxia in normal humans. Enhanced sympathetic chemoreflex activity induced by intermittent hypoxia may contribute to altered neurocirculatory control and adverse cardiovascular consequences in sleep apnea.