东方蝾螈幼体热耐受性和游泳表现的热驯化响应

特定物种的热驯化能力决定着其是否能成功耐受环境温度的改变,在应对未来气候变暖的趋势中扮演重要角色。为评估有尾类两栖动物的热驯化反应,在3个恒定水温(15、20℃和25℃)中驯化东方蝾螈(Cynops orientalis)幼体4周,测定驯化后幼体在不同测试温度下的运动(游泳)表现、临界低温(CT_(Min))与临界高温(CT_(Max))。结果显示:驯化与测试温度均显著影响蝾螈的游泳速度;驯化温度亦影响蝾螈的CT_(Min)和CT_(Max),但不影响可耐受温度范围(TRR)。驯化与测试温度的交互作用对蝾螈泳速的影响显著,表明驯化温度可改变其游泳表现的热敏感性。经某一温度驯化后蝾螈泳速似乎在相同测试温度下表现最好,该结果可能支持驯化有益假说。CT_(Min)和CT_(Max)随驯化温度的升高而增加,表明:低温驯化可提高动物抗低温能力,而高温驯化提高其抗高温能力。两栖类动物热耐受性与运动表现热驯化反应的种间变异可能与栖息地热环境的差异有关。     

The effect of temperature and thermal acclimation on the sustainable performance of swimming scup

There is a significant reduction in overall maximum power output of muscle at low temperatures due to reduced steady-state (i.e. maximum activation) power-generating capabilities of muscle. However, during cyclical locomotion, a further reduction in power is due to the interplay between non-steady-state contractile properties of muscle (i.e. rates of activation and relaxation) and the stimulation and the length-change pattern muscle undergoes in vivo. In particular, even though the relaxation rate of scup red muscle is slowed greatly at cold temperatures (10°C), warm-acclimated scup swim with the same stimulus duty cycles at cold as they do at warm temperature, not affording slow-relaxing muscle any additional time to relax. Hence, at 10°C, red muscle generates extremely low or negative work in most parts of the body, at all but the slowest swimming speeds.Do scup shorten their stimulation duration and increase muscle relaxation rate during cold acclimation? At 10°C, electromyography (EMG) duty cycles were 18% shorter in cold-acclimated scup than in warm-acclimated scup. But contrary to the expectations, the red muscle did not have a faster relaxation rate, rather, cold-acclimated muscle had an approximately 50% faster activation rate. By driving cold- and warm-acclimated muscle through cold- and warm-acclimated conditions, we found a very large increase in red muscle power during swimming at 10°C. As expected, reducing stimulation duration markedly increased power output. However, the increased rate of activation alone produced an even greater effect. Hence, to fully understand thermal acclimation, it is necessary to examine the whole system under realistic physiological conditions.     

温度对中华倒刺鲃不同生理生态性能的影响:驯化有益假说的验证

驯化有益假说(Beneficial acclimation hypothesis)认为生物表型的适应性变化会增强其在诱导这些变化产生的环境中的生理机能或适合度。然而,由于动物不同生理生态性能对环境驯化的响应可能不一致,那么,测试表型性状的选择对驯化有益假说的验证就尤为关键。为此,整合表征动物生存适合度的不同生理生态性能并探究其对环境驯化的响应模式就十分必要。以我国长江中上游广泛分布的中华倒刺鲃(Spinibarbus sinensis)为对象,考察了驯化温度(18℃、28℃)和测试温度(18℃、28℃)及其交互作用对该物种有氧运动能力和无氧运动能力的影响,为驯化有益假说等相关假说的验证提供参考。研究发现,中华倒刺鲃不同生理生态性能对温度驯化的响应存在差异:(1)驯化温度对表征中华倒刺鲃无氧运动能力的快速启动游泳无显著影响(除最大加速度外)(P>0.05),研究数据倾向于支持无益假说(No-advantage hypothesis);(2)驯化温度对表征中华倒刺鲃有氧运动能力的临界游泳速度(Critical swimming speed,Ucrit)和最大代谢率(Maximum metabolic rate, MMR)影响显著(P<0.05),18℃驯化-18℃测试下的Ucrit和MMR均优于28℃驯化-18℃测试下的Ucrit和MMR,结果部分支持驯化有益假说和冷有益假说(Cooler is better hypothesis);(3)驯化温度、测试温度、游泳速度对中华倒刺鲃的运动代谢率(Active metabolic rate,MO2)和单位距离能量消耗(The energetic cost of transport, COT)影响显著(P<0.05)。值得关注的是,当游泳速度小于30 cm/s时,驯化温度对MO2和COT无影响,结果支持无益假说;而当游泳速度大于30 cm/s时,在特定的流速下经过28℃驯化的中华倒刺鲃无论在28℃还是18℃的测试环境下MO2和COT均较低,结果倾向于支持热有益假说(Warmer is better hypothesis)。研究结果提示:驯化有益假说并不具有普遍性,热驯化相关假说的验证不仅受表型性状选择的影响,而且还与测试的环境选择压力有关。     

Effect of long-term thermal acclimation on the electrical avoidance conditioning of fish

The learning behaviour and memory formation of ectotherms, especially of fish, depend significantly on the acclimation temperature. Although temperature is known to affect different physiological factors in the nervous system, the exact manner in which memory and learning are affected by these alterations is not clear. Large variations in the acclimation time before learning takes place, are striking. With regard to long-lasting compensatory changes in the polarity of membrane-bound neuronal gangliosides (1) and in the bio-electrical activity of the CNS (post-synaptic potential amplitudes (2)) following thermal acclimation it was of interest to investigate the time course of acclimation on the learning ability of fish subjected to a new environmental temperature.     

驯化温度与急性变温对南方鲇幼鱼皮肤呼吸代谢的影响

为了考查鱼类皮肤呼吸代谢的温度反应特征,在不同驯化温度(10、20、30℃)及双向急性变温(10→20℃、20→30℃、10→30℃;20→10 ℃、30→20℃、30→10℃)条件下采用自行设计的皮肤呼吸代谢装置测定麻醉后南方鲇(Silurus meridionalis)幼鱼的皮肤耗氧率(MO2skin)及鳃部耗氧率(MO2gill),并计算整体耗氧率(MO2total).研究显示:南方鲇幼鱼的MO2skin占MO2total 的16.4％-19.0％,随着驯化温度的升高,MO2skin上升的幅度显著低于MO2total(P＜0.05),MO2skin占MO2total的比例则呈下降趋势;急性升(降)温组的MO2skin与升(降)温前驯化温度组相比显著升高(降低)(P＜0.05),却与相应温度驯化组的MO2skin无显著性差异(P＞0.05);急性变温组MO2skin的Q10值与驯化温度组的差异不显著(P＞0.05),却显著低于MO2total的Q10值(P＜0.05).通过相关资料比较发现,南方鲇幼鱼MO2skin占MO2total的比例处于中上水平.研究表明,在驯化温度和急性变温条件下,实验鱼的MO2total分别存在代谢补偿反应和急性胁迫反应;MO2skin与MO2total的温度反应不同,它既不是一个完全的化学反应过程,也不是生物反应过程,而更倾向于是一个物理的扩散过程.     

Male-specific (Z)-9-tricosene stimulates female mating behaviour in the spider Pholcus beijingensis

Chemical signals play an important role in spider sexual communication, yet the chemistry of spider sex pheromones remains poorly understood. Chemical identification of male-produced pheromone-mediating sexual behaviour in spiders has also, to our knowledge, not been reported before. This study aimed to examine whether chemically mediated strategies are used by males of the spider Pholcus beijingensis for increasing the probability of copulation. Based on data from gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis, electroantennography assay and a series of behavioural tests, we verified that (Z)-9-tricosene is a male-specific compound in the spider P. beijingensis. This compound acts as an aphrodisiac: it increases the likelihood that a female will mate. Mate-searching males release (Z)-9-tricosene to stimulate sexual behaviour of conspecific females. In the two-choice assay, however, sexually receptive females show no preference to the chambers containing (Z)-9-tricosene. This indicates that the male pheromone of P. beijingensis is not an attractant per se to the conspecific females. This is, to our knowledge, the first identification of a male-produced aphrodisiac pheromone in spiders.     

Investigating thermal acclimation effects before and after a cold shock in Drosophila melanogaster using behavioural assays

Acclimation to environmental change can impose both costs and benefits to organisms. In this study we explored to what extent locomotor behaviour of Drosophila melanogaster is influenced by developmental temperature and adult temperature in both the laboratory and the field. Following development at 15, 25, or 31 °C, adult flies were tested for locomotor activity at all developmental temperatures in the laboratory before and after exposure to a cold shock and in the field for their ability to locate resources after a cold shock. Both test (15, 25, and 31 °C) and developmental temperatures strongly affected locomoter activity, with flies developed at 25 °C having the highest activity at all three test temperatures before the cold shock. After the cold shock flies developed at 15 °C had higher activity compared with flies developed at 25 and 31 °C when tested at 15 and 25 °C, and flies developed at 25 °C had the highest activity when tested at 31 °C. Furthermore, flies developed at 31 °C showed longer recovery times following the cold shock at test temperatures of 15 and 25 °C. However, flies acclimated at 15 °C during development did not recover faster at 15 and 25 °C compared with flies developed at 25 °C. There were no significant correlations between recovery time and locomotor activity at any of the test temperatures. Flies developed at 15 °C and exposed to a cold shock before release in the field were much more successful in locating a resource at low field temperatures compared with flies developed at 25 and 31 °C. Our results provide support for both the beneficial acclimation hypothesis and the optimal developmental temperature hypothesis, but the results are highly context dependent and change with the temperature experienced by the individual during its lifetime.     

Singlet oxygen-mediated and EXECUTER-dependent signalling and acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana exposed to light stress

Plants respond to environmental changes by acclimation that activates defence mechanisms and enhances the plant''s resistance against a subsequent more severe stress. Chloroplasts play an important role as a sensor of environmental stress factors that interfere with the photosynthetic electron transport and enhance the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). One of these ROS, singlet oxygen (¹O₂), activates a signalling pathway within chloroplasts that depends on the two plastid-localized proteins EXECUTER 1 and 2. Moderate light stress induces acclimation protecting photosynthetic membranes against a subsequent more severe high light stress and at the same time activates ¹O₂-mediated and EXECUTER-dependent signalling. Pre-treatment of Arabidopsis seedlings with moderate light stress confers cross-protection against a virulent Pseudomonas syringae strain. While non-pre-acclimated seedlings are highly susceptible to the pathogen regardless of whether ¹O₂- and EXECUTER-dependent signalling is active or not, pre-stressed acclimated seedlings without this signalling pathway lose part of their pathogen resistance. These results implicate ¹O₂- and EXECUTER-dependent signalling in inducing acclimation but suggest also a contribution by other yet unknown signalling pathways during this response of plants to light stress.     

The effect of temperature and acclimation period on repeat swimming performance in cutthroat trout

Hatchery cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki clarki were used to examine the effects of 48 h and 3 week temperature acclimation periods on critical swimming speed ( U _crit). The U _crit was determined for fish at acclimation temperatures of 7, 14 and 18° C using two consecutive ramp‐ U _crit tests in mobile Brett‐type swim tunnels. An additional group was tested at the stock's ambient rearing temperature of 10° C. The length of the temperature acclimation period had no significant effect on either the first or the second U _crit( U _crit‐1 and U _crit‐2, respectively) or on the recovery ratio (the quotient of U _crit‐2  U _crit‐1⁻¹). As anticipated, there was a significant positive relationship between U _crit‐1 and temperature ( P  < 0·01) for both acclimation periods, and an increasing, though non‐significant, trend between U _crit‐2 and temperature ( P  = 0·10). Acclimation temperature had no significant effect ( P  = 0·71) on the recovery ratio. These results indicate that a 48 h acclimation to experimental temperatures within the range of −3 to +8° C of the acclimation temperature may be sufficient in studies of swimming performance with this species. This ability to acclimate rapidly is probably adaptive for cutthroat trout and other species that occupy thermally variable environments.     

Inhibition of female mating receptivity by male-derived extracts in two Callosobruchus species: Consequences for interspecific mating

We investigated the effects of injecting male-derived extracts on congeneric female receptivity in two species of Callosobruchus beetle, C. chinensis and C. maculatus. We also examined the influence of interspecific mating on female remating behaviour in these two species. Male-derived extracts reduced congeneric female receptivity in both species. As quick-acting components, extracts of C. chinensis male seminal vesicles reduced the receptivity of C. maculatus females, whereas extracts of C. maculatus male testes reduced the receptivity of C. chinensis females. As slow-acting components, extracts of male accessory glands of other species reduced the receptivity of both C. maculatus and chinensis females. After interspecific mating, the sperm of C. maculatus males were transferred to the reproductive organs of C. chinensis females, thereby reducing their receptivity. In contrast, no C. chinensis sperm were transferred to the reproductive organs of C. maculatus females; accordingly, the latter's receptivity was not reduced. Furthermore, the survival rate of C. chinensis females decreased markedly after interspecific mating. These results raise the possibility that under circumstances where populations of these two species share the same habitat, reproductive interference would occur only in the interactions between C. maculatus males and C. chinensis females.     

A Review of the Biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gambusia affinis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">G. holbrooki</Emphasis>

Eastern and Western Gambusia (i.e., Gambusia holbrooki and G. affinis, respectively) are considered together here because these two fish species are very closely related, similar in appearance, similar in biology and often confused. Widely divergent attitudes have developed with regard to these fish with some viewing them as being highly beneficial to humans through controlling mosquitoes and the diseases they harbor, and others expressing concern about the negative impacts that these fish may have on other species with which they interact. Because of the widespread distribution, high levels of abundance, ease of capture and captive maintenance, and divergent attitudes, a very large and diffuse literature has developed with regard to these species. In fact, few fish species have been studied as much as or more than these two species combined. There has, however, been no comprehensive review of their biology published to date. As it is not possible to provide a comprehensive review of Gambusia biology in one reasonably sized document, I provide here a review of aspects of their biology at the level of species and individual. In another review I focused instead on the levels of population and species communities and consider the impacts that these fish have on mosquitoes and other organisms (Pyke, unpublished). As would be expected of such widespread and abundant species, Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki are clearly very tolerant, adaptable and variable in their biology, at both an individual and population level. Both individuals and populations can tolerate, and often thrive within, a wide range of conditions and the abilities of individuals to do this are enhanced if they have time to acclimate to any changes. Populations can adapt through genetic or evolutionary changes in response to conditions that vary in space or time, and there is significant genetic variation within and between populations.     

Environmentally induced responses co-opted for reproductive altruism

Reproductive altruism is an extreme form of altruism best typified by sterile castes in social insects and somatic cells in multicellular organisms. Although reproductive altruism is central to the evolution of multicellularity and eusociality, the mechanistic basis for the evolution of this behaviour is yet to be deciphered. Here, we report that the gene responsible for the permanent suppression of reproduction in the somatic cells of the multicellular green alga, Volvox carteri, evolved from a gene that in its unicellular relative, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, is part of the general acclimation response to various environmental stress factors, which includes the temporary suppression of reproduction. Furthermore, we propose a model for the evolution of soma, in which by simulating the acclimation signal (i.e. a change in cellular redox status) in a developmental rather than environmental context, responses beneficial to a unicellular individual can be co-opted into an altruistic behaviour at the group level. The co-option of environmentally induced responses for reproductive altruism can contribute to the stability of this behaviour, as the loss of such responses would be costly for the individual. This hypothesis also predicts that temporally varying environments, which will select for more efficient acclimation responses, are likely to be more conducive to the evolution of reproductive altruism.     

Temporal dynamics of mating and predation in mosquito swarms

We determined the numbers of copulations and predatory attacks in swarms ofAnopheles freeborni (Diptera: Culicidae), and the distribution of these events throughout the duration of the swarming period each day. On 19 evenings of observation, we recorded 2724 copulating pairs leaving swarms and 1351 dragonfly (Pantala hymenaea andErythemis collocata) attacks. Mating activity partially coincided with predator activity. Most copulations occurred between 10 and 20 min after the swarms formed, while predation events were most frequent during the initial 15 min of the swarm. We calculated the ratio of copulations to predatory attacks during the swarming period. This ratio was significantly higher in an area sheltered by trees than it was in the open. We suggest that physiological and ecological constraints other than predation operate on the mating system of this anopheline to affect the timing of swarm initiation and swarm site selection.     

Lifespan, lifetime reproductive performance and paternity loss of within-pair and extra-pair offspring in the coal tit Periparus ater

The hypothesis that females of socially monogamous species obtain indirect benefits (good or compatible genes) from extra-pair mating behaviour has received enormous attention but much less generally accepted support. Here we ask whether selection for adult survival and fecundity or sexual selection contribute to indirect selection of the extra-pair mating behaviour in socially monogamous coal tits (Periparus ater). We tracked locally recruited individuals with known paternity status through their lives predicting that the extra-pair offspring (EPO) would outperform the within-pair offspring (WPO). No differences between the WPO and EPO recruits were detected in lifespan or age of first reproduction. However, the male WPO had a higher lifetime number of broods and higher lifetime number of social offspring compared with male EPO recruits, while no such differences were evident for female recruits. Male EPO recruits did not compensate for their lower social reproductive success by higher fertilization success within their social pair bonds. Thus, our results do not support the idea that enhanced adult survival, fecundity or within-pair fertilization success are manifestations of the genetic benefits of extra-pair matings. But we emphasize that a crucial fitness component, the extra-pair fertilization success of male recruits, has yet     

Density-dependent impact of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte sex ratio on mosquito infection rates

Malaria parasites produce male and female life cycle stages (gametocytes) that must fertilize to achieve successful colonization of the mosquito. Gametocyte sex ratios have been shown to be under strong selection pressure both as an adaptive response to a worsening blood environment for transmission and according to the number of co-infecting clones in the vertebrate. Evidence for an impact of sex ratio on the transmission success of Plasmodium falciparum has, however, been more controversial. Theoretical models of fertilization predict that increasingly male sex ratios will be favoured at low gametocyte densities to ensure fertilization. Here, we analyse in vitro transmission studies of P. falciparum to Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes and test this prediction. We find that there is a discernible effect of sex ratio on transmission but which is dependent upon the gametocyte density. While increasingly male sex ratios do give higher transmission success at low gametocyte densities, they reduce success at higher densities. This therefore provides empirical confirmation that sex ratio has an immediate impact on transmission success and that it is density-dependent. Identifying the signals used by the parasite to alter its sex ratio is essential to determine the success of transmission-blocking vaccines that aim to impede the fertilization process.     

Arabidopsis sos1 mutant in a salt-tolerant accession revealed an importance of salt acclimation ability in plant salt tolerance

An analysis of the salinity tolerance of 354 Arabidopsis thaliana accessions showed that some accessions were more tolerant to salt shock than the reference accession, Col-0, when transferred from 0 to 225 mM NaCl. In addition, several accessions, including Zu-0, showed marked acquired salt tolerance after exposure to moderate salt stress. It is likely therefore that Arabidopsis plants have at least two types of tolerance, salt shock tolerance and acquired salt tolerance. To evaluate a role of well-known salt shock tolerant gene SOS1 in acquired salt tolerance, we isolated a sos1 mutant from ion-beam-mutagenized Zu-0 seedlings. The mutant showed severe growth inhibition under salt shock stress owing to a single base deletion in the SOS1 gene and was even more salt sensitive than Col-0. Nevertheless, it was able to survive after acclimation on 100 mM NaCl for 7 d followed by 750 mM sorbitol for 20 d, whereas Col-0 became chlorotic under the same conditions. We propose that genes for salt acclimation ability are different from genes for salt shock tolerance and play an important role in the acquisition of salt or osmotic tolerance.     

Short-term acclimation of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain to changing light: a mathematical model

Photosynthetic eukaryotes house two photosystems with distinct light absorption spectra. Natural fluctuations in light quality and quantity can lead to unbalanced or excess excitation, compromising photosynthetic efficiency and causing photodamage. Consequently, these organisms have acquired several distinct adaptive mechanisms, collectively referred to as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence, which modulates the organization and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. The ability to monitor NPQ processes fluorometrically has led to substantial progress in elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms. However, the relative contribution of distinct NPQ mechanisms to variable light conditions in different photosynthetic eukaryotes remains unclear. Here, we present a mathematical model of the dynamic regulation of eukaryotic photosynthesis using ordinary differential equations. We demonstrate that, for Chlamydomonas, our model recapitulates the basic fluorescence features of short-term light acclimation known as state transitions and discuss how the model can be iteratively refined by comparison with physiological experiments to further our understanding of light acclimation in different species.