Pain as a Cause of Aggression

Aggressive behavior can be elicited by aversive stimuli as anunconditioned reflex. Electric shock, heat, physical blows,and intra-cranial stimulation are among the stimuli which willelicit fighting. Various characteristics of the stimulus—suchas frequency of presentation, intensity, and duration, in thecase of shock—and of the environment in general, influencethe rate at which pain-elicited fighting occurs. Characteristicsof the animals—such as sex, age, sensory impairment, species,and social experience— also influence the occurrence ofrespondent aggression. Aggression can be conditioned according to both the operantand the respondent paradigms. Since both operant and respondentaggression can occur concurrently, interesting interactionsresult. Depending upon a number of variables, respondent aggressionexerts a disruptive influence on social behavior controlledby aversive stimuli. The interference of aggression with behaviormaintained by aversive stimuli may cause us to revise our opinionof the efficiency of aversive stimuli in social situations. Although pain is probably a source of human aggression, furtherresearch with infra-human animals, as well as actual researchwith humans, should elucidate the relationship between aversivestimuli and aggression in man.     

Sociality in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callithrix penicillata</Emphasis>: I. Intragroup Male Profile

We analyzed the social interactions and behavior of adult males from a group of black-tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) to determine their roles and hierarchy in the group and how their behavior fits within the predictions of monogamic or polyandric mating systems in callitrichines. We monitored 1 group of marmosets from February to October 2005 in central Brazil. We conducted focal subject samples with 20 predetermined behaviors for adult and subadult males and registered all occurrences of agonistic behavior, affiliative behavior, copulations, and alarm vocalizations. Moreover, we recorded the height in the vegetation and proximity to other individuals by the focal subject. Males exhibited no clear dominance hierarchy based on either behavioral data or patterns of scent marking. Copulation and grooming patterns showed a social bond between 1 of the males and the dominant female, suggesting him as the group’s putative breeding male, with no apparent competition for the position. There was no difference regarding other behaviors— alarm vocalization, infant carrying, and play—or the use of different vegetation strata among the males, and no indication of a specific role by the putative breeding male or any other male in the group. The presence of multiple males in marmoset groups and the behavioral profile generated in the current study suggest a mating system compatible with monogamy with helpers-at-the-nest structure.     

Embryonic Pituitary Adrenal Axis, Behavior Development and Domestication in Birds

ACTH and corticosterone exert opposite effects on the approachand imprinting behavior of newly hatched ducklings. Wild mallardand domesticated Pekin ducklings differ in the early posthatchperiod in both plasma corticosterone levels and approach/avoidancebehaviors. Injection of Pekin duckling embryos with pituitary—adrenocorticalhormones alters both later adrenal function and certain aspectsof posthatch behavior. These birds have behavioral and hormonalcharacteristics which resemble those of wild mallards. The hypothesisthat behavioral differences in wild and domesticated ducklingsresult from a higher level of pituitary adrenal function inthe wild embryo is explored. Although adrenocortical functionchanges during domestication in many species, evidence thatthe hormonal changes mediate the concomitant changes in approachand avoidance behavior remains inconclusive. Factors which causeadrenal function and early behaviors to differ in wild and domesticatedgenotypes must be sought in the gene action during embryonicdevelopment. Since imprinting behavior is modulated by pituitary—adrenalhormones, any factor which affects post—hatch adrenalfunction may potentially affect imprinting. Later behavior developmentin the adult is strongly dependent on neonatal experiences;and, therefore, hormonal modulation of early imprinting behaviormay constitute an important determinant of adult social behavior.     

Formation and development of a group of juvenileHylobates Iar

Three young gibbons, who had minimal previous social contact with each other, were released together in a semi-natural environment. The individual and social behavior of the gibbons paralleled that of gibbons in the wild: of the total daytime, 71% was spent in foraging activities, 20% in social interaction, and 9% in inactivity.The tendency toward group formation proved strong in these gibbons; they were together an average of 68% of the time following their release. Group maintenance seemed based on a sharing of the dominance role for various activities, either equally among the three or in the form of a pair (the male and one of the females) being co-dominant. The male and small female became gradually isolated from the large female. Reciprocal initiation of sexual exploration and play were related to this pairing.The results of discrete activity observations by the simple method of simultaneously recording geographical location and activity of each gibbon, plus the continuous observation of social behavior, were remarkably consistent with gibbon observational data in an artificial setting and those obtained in long-term field investigations. In addition, the methodology permitted an analysis of some of the finer aspects of social behavior.     

Resource assessment in hermit crabs: the worth of their own shell

Animals gather information about the quality of a resource throughits assessment and behave accordingly as a result of adaptivemotivational changes. In the hermit crab Pagurus longicarpus,we investigated whether an individual was affected in its motivationto acquire a new shell by the quality of the domicile shell(own resource value [ORV]), of the offered shell (external resourcevalue [ERV]), or of both and asked whether its motivation wasaltered by the information gathered during shell investigation.We analyzed the behavior of hermit crabs inhabiting shells ofdiffering qualities and compared their willingness to acquirean offered shell—optimal, smaller than optimal, or largerthan optimal—by measuring the latency to approach it,the number of shell investigation, and its total duration. Crabsin smaller shells (SSs) approached more quick and often theoffered shell, whereas crabs in larger shells investigated theoffered shell more thoroughly. The readiness of crabs to approachthe offered shell and the extent of its investigation were independentof the ERV but were exclusively affected by the ORV, whereasthe number and duration of shell investigation did not changewith time as investigation proceeded, except for crabs in SSs.These results suggest that P. longicarpus' motivation to acquirea new shell is exclusively influenced by the value of the shellit inhabits rather than by the quality of the shell it is offeredand that this species does not gather—or does not use—informationabout ERV during investigation.     

The use of vocal signals in the social play of barbary macaques

Field studies in various species ofMacaca (Cercopithecidae) provided evidence for specific visual displays that typically accompany playful interactions. The aim of our study was to examine whether and when playing individuals would use auditory displays, i.e. vocalizations that often occur during social play as well. The study was conducted on a population of semi-free Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) with a special focus on the composition and dynamics of playful wrestling (synonymous term: ‘rough-and-tumble play’). Analyses of dyadic encounters between subadult males allowed us to distinguish five types of playful behaviours and three types of vocalizations. The latter were clearly linked to encounters where effects of visual signals were impaired, e.g. during close body contact. During wrestling, vocalizations tended to increase in the beginning of an encounter, whereas the last seconds of wrestling often showed a decline in vocalization rate. Our results allowed us to conclude that these vocalizations may supplement or in many cases even substitute interactional effects of visual signals, e.g. the ‘play face.’     

The strategies of immature Macaques in their interactions with adult males in a colony ofMacaca fuscata

We investigated longterm socio-spatial relationships between adult males and immatures in a colony of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata), housed in a 1200 m² indoor-outdoor enclosure at Cavriglia Natural Park (Arezzo, Italy). Using focal animal observations together with scan sampling, we found that the immatures between six months and one year of age showed particularly high frequency of proximity and vicinity to the male troop leader. The immatures-actively sought proximity to this individual, even if social interaction with him was minimal compared to other males with which high frequency of play occurred. Proximity to the leader (even) caused some mild aggressive response by him, showing that this individual tolerated, rather than sought, proximity to the immatures. Their behaviour was not mediated by the mothers, who might be expected to profit from their offsprings’ proximity to the leader. The leader seemed to support the immatures during aggressive interactions with a significantly high frequency due to their spatial proximity to him. This behaviour decreased during the following year. We interpreted the immatures’ behaviour as a social strategy expressed during an early phase of individual ontogeny to manipulate the leader’s “control” role and to explore the physical and social environment from a relatively secure position.     

Avian prey-dropping behavior. I. The effects of prey characteristics and prey loss

Numerous species of birds break hard-shelled prey items by droppingthem from a height. This intriguing prey-extraction method providesan excellent opportunity for studying foraging behavior becausea single, easily measurable quantity—height of drop—maybe influenced by a wide variety of identifiable characteristicsof the prey (e.g., breakability, weight) and social environment(e.g., alone or in the presence of kleptoparasites). Using adynamic, state variable modeling approach, this paper presentsthe first theoretical framework for avian prey-dropping systemsthat incorporates the diversity of prey characteristics andsocial situations. The model yielded a series of qualitativepredictions about prey-dropping behavior that can be testedreadily in any prey-dropping system. In particular, the results indicatedthat quantitative and qualitative differences in item breakability andpotential kleptoparasitism should have a significant effecton the height and pattern of prey dropping.     

No infanticide in the hystricognath rodent, Octodon degus: does ecology play a role?

The behavior of male and female Octodon degus (Hystricognathi; Octodontidae) was studied in captivity to examine the occurrence of non-parental infanticide, which involves the killing of immature infants by adult conspecifics other than the genetic parents. Sexually inexperienced male and female, and lactating female degus were tested for their behavior toward genetically unrelated, and socially unfamiliar, degu pups in a neutral arena. No male or female degu showed any sign of aggression toward the pups. Lactating females tended to exhibit the shortest latency to first behavioral interaction with the pup and the highest rate of social interactions with the pup, and they spent a relatively high proportion of their time in proximity with the pup. In contrast, males tended to show the longest latency to first pup contact and a reduced rate of interactions with the pup, and they spent a relatively small fraction of their time with the pup. The behavior of non-breeding females seemed intermediate between that of males and lactating females. Given that social and ecological conditions posed to promote non-parental infanticide in other rodents seemed not particularly different from what is known of degu biology, ecology, and social behavior, lack of degu infanticide may reflect phylogenetic inertia instead of an absence of conditions favoring infanticide. Received: 8 January 2000 / Received in revised form: 16 June 2000 / Accepted: 20 June 2000     

Highly Repetitive Object Play in a Cichlid Fish (Tropheus duboisi)

Whether play occurs in fishes has long been a contentious issue, but recent observations document that social, object, and locomotor play can all be found in some species of teleosts. However, quantitative studies and those documenting individual differences are rare. We recorded hundreds of occurrences of an unusual behavior in three male Tropheus duboisi. The target behavior of attacking and deflecting an object that rapidly returned to its upright position not only fit the criteria for play behavior, but differed quantitatively and qualitatively among the individuals. This behavior has not been observed in other species of cichlids and other kinds of fishes. The presence or absence of food or other fish either within the aquarium or visible in an adjacent aquarium had no marked or consistent effect on the occurrence of the behavior. Various explanations for the origin and function of the behavior are discussed.     

Molecular Variation and Possible Lines Of Evolution of Peptide and Protein Hormones

The widespread distribution of certain steroids and amino acidderivatives with hormonal properties is considered evidencein support of the dictum that "it is not the hormones that change,but rather the uses to which they are put." However, analysesof the distributions, biological activities, immunological cross-reactivities,and sequences of amino acids of five representative peptideand protein hormones or groups of hormones—lactogenichormone, growth hormone, the corticotropin-MSH-ß lipotropinfamily, insulin, and the neurohypophysial hormones—supporta concept of change and of molecular evolution of these polypeptidicmolecules. When analyzed in terms of the genetic code, the aminoacid interchanges which have been revealed by determinationof sequences of amino acids can, most often, be explained bysingle base mutations in the appropriate codons. In two instanceswhere two base mutations within a single codon are required,intermediate replacements of amino acid have been suggested;one of these would lead to a 2-ALA-ß MSH, and theother to a 4-PRO, 8-ILE oxytocin.     

Some Complicating Factors in the Study of the Calcium Metabolism of Teleosts

A number of factors which may complicate studies dealing withthe calcium metabolism of teleosts are pointed out. Thus, lowenvironmental levels of calcium markedly affect both gill RNAand sodium metabolism in dilute sea water, and the absence ofmonovalent cations affects calcium metabolism in dilute environments.Hypophysectomy is not always followed by the disappearance ofcortisol from the plasma, and prolactin—which is requiredfor the survival of either hypophysectomized or intact animalsin a divalent ion-free environment—stimulates cortisolproduction. It is also pointed out that Fundulus kansae can be maintainedin divalent ion-free environments for long periods, and thatcalcium is mobilized from internal reservoirs such as acellularbone and scales. Failure to survive in such environments isdue to the regulatory effect of environmental calcium on sodiummetabolism rather than on calcium metabolism per se. Finally,it is pointed out that while one parameter of calcium metabolism—suchas plasma calcium levels in male fish—may remain constantthroughtout the year, other parameters such as calcium uptakemay vary considerably. Seasonal differencees in responses tomammalian calcitonin have also been noted.     

Behavior of an all-juvenile group of Rhesus monkeys

The behavior and organization of a group of 33 juvenile rhesus monkeys removed from a single free-ranging group were found to parallel closely intact rhesus social groups. Dominance ranking among the juveniles was 95% predictable from prior knowledge of mothers' ranks. Grooming, sitting close together, sitting touching, and play were found to occur much more frequently between matrilineal kin than expected from random selection of partner. Some estrous behavior was observed, including two instances of peri-menstrual estrus. One lengthy homosexual interaction between two two-year-old females was observed. The basis of much of the behavior and organization shown by the juveniles was found to be the matrilineal kin bonds brought from their natal group.     

Assessing variation in the social behavior of stumptail macaques using thermal criteria

This paper reports a method for comparing the environments of nonhuman primates based on biophysical, thermal criteria. The method is applied to an analysis of behaviors exhibited by group-living stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides), documented by a group-scan observation technique, to test the hypothesis that the expression of social behavior is dependent on thermal conditions. Thermal conditions are identified by considering sky cover and the relative cooling power of the environment. The results show that the rates of occurrence of affiliative, play, and solitary behaviors are altered significantly at a relative cooling power at or above 550 kcal/m2/hr under cloudy conditions and at or above 600 kcal/m2/hr under sunny conditions. In addition, the rates of occurrence of play, sexual, aggressive, and submissive behavioral states are also significantly different under cloudy, rather than sunny, conditions over particular ranges of cooling. It is possible to conclude that thermal criteria affect the expression of social behaviors by stumptail macaques. This is consistent with studies of huddling behavior exhibited by stumptail macaques and rhesus macaques (M. mulatta), and suggests that 1) certain changes in the expression of social behaviors may be thermoregulatory in at least some nonhuman primate species and 2) thermal criteria are likely to be useful tools when conducting comparative analyses of behavioral data collected on animals in outdoor environments.     

The social structure of the Oregon troop of Japanese macaques

Intensive observations were made of a troop ofM. fuscata which was kept in a large outdoor corral at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center during the summer and fall of 1967. The intent of the observations was to determine whether the troop's normal patterns of social behavior and social structure seemed to be affected by confinement in the corral. Substantial deviations were noted between the spatial structure of the Oregon troop and the central-peripheral structure typical of free-ranging troops in Japan. There was also some indication of heightened aggressiveness within the corral but other aspects of social behavior seemed unaltered.     

Kingdom animalia: The zoological malaise from a microbial perspective

Pain and cognitive dissonance abounds amongst biologists: theplant-animal, botany-zoology wound has nearly healed and thenew gash—revealed by department and budget reorganizations—is"molecular" vs. "organismic" biology. Here I contend that resolutionof these tensions within zoology requires that an autopoietic-gaianview replace a mechanical-neodarwinian perspective; in the interestof brevity and since many points have been discussed elsewhere,rather than develop detailed arguments I must make staccatostatements and refer to a burgeoning literature. The first centralconcept is that animals, all organisms developing from blastularembryos, evolved from single protist cells that were unableto reproduce their undulipodia. The second points to the usefulnessof recognizing the analogy between cyclically established symbiosesand meiotic sexuality     

Dynamics of dolphin porpoising revisited

Porpoising is the popular name for the high-speed surface piercingmotion of dolphins and other species, in which long, ballisticjumps are alternated with sections of swimming close to thesurface. The first analysis of this behavior (Au and Weihs,1980) showed that above a certain "crossover" speed this behavioris energetically advantageous, as the reduction in drag dueto movement in the air becomes greater than the added cost ofleaping. Since that publication several studies documented porpoisingbehavior at high speeds. The observations indicated that thebehavior was more complex than previously assumed. The leapswere interspersed with relatively long swimming bouts, of abouttwice the leap length. In the present paper, the possibilityof dolphins using a combination of leaping and burst and coastswimming is examined. A three-phase model is proposed, in whichthe dolphin leaps out of the water at a speed U_f, which is thefinal speed obtained at the end of the burst phase of burstand coast swimming. The leap is at constant speed and so theanimal returns to the water at U_f, goes to a shallow depth andstarts horizontal coasting while losing speed, till it reachesU_i. At that point it starts active swimming, accelerating toU_f. It then starts the next leap. Ranges of speeds for whichthis three-stage swimming is advantageous are calculated asa function of animal and physical parameters. Notation C—Constant defined in equation (12) C_D—Coasting drag coefficient D—Drag g—Gravitational acceleration H—Height of jump J—Energy required for jump k—Ratio of swim length to jump length l—Distance L—Total distance (eq. 28) m—Added mass M—Animal mass M₁—Total mass r—Coefficient defined in eq. (22) R—Ratio of energies, for three-phase swimming R₂—Ratio of energies, for burst and coast swimming t—Time T—Thrust U—Speed V—Body volume W—Weight     

Fine Structure of Hydrolysed Primary Walls in Tracheary Elements of Petiolar Xylem in Eucalyptus delegatensis

The hydrolysed lateral primary walls of tracheary elements ofthe petiolar xylem of Eucalyptus delegatensis were examinedby electron microscopy. Vessel-vessel and vessel—tracheidhydrolysed walls were strikingly different in appearance fromtracheid—tracheid walls. The difference seemed to be inthe degree to which the primary walls were hydrolysed. The observationssuggest the wall hydrolysis to be an ordered and controlledprocess. Eucalyptus delegatensis, hydrolysed wall, petiolar xylem, tracheary elements     

Evolution of Social Behavior in Spiders (Araneae; Eresidae and Theridiidae)

Whereas most spiders are asocial, species in eight familiesare known to live all their life in communities and are thus"permanent-social." Their special attributes are: tolerance,interattraction, and cooperation. These peculiarities must havebeen achieved step by step several times independently. Periodic-socialspiders have been studied as a link between asocial and permanent-socialspiders. In two families—the cribellate Eresidae and ecribellateTheridiidae—different steps of periodic sociality havebeen discovered, from brood-care to feeding by regurgitation.The comparative study of the phylogeny of social behavior inboth families uncovers remarkable convergences of patterns fromasocial to permanent-social via periodical-social species ofspiders.     

笼养藏猴交配行为的初步研究

本文对笼养藏猴交配活动的观察表明:1.Macaca thibetana属多次跨爬及单次跨爬射精兼而有之的类型,而非典型的单次跨爬射精型;2.在交配活动中,特别是在性伙伴的选择上,雌性和雄性一样起着积极的作用;3.M.thibetana雌性存在性干扰行为,并且雌性的社会地位可能受其交配活动影响。