《Molecular Plant）文章中文摘要2009年第2卷第2期

题目：光合生物中的修复蛋白甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶：基因组织、还原机理和生理作用（综述）摘要：甲硫氨酸（methionine）氧化成为甲硫氨酸亚砜（methionine sulfoxide,MetSO）是一个可逆反应,由两类专一催化MetSO的S-和R-非对映异构体A和B型甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶（methionine sulfoxide reductase,MSR）催化。从细菌到人的许多生物中都发现了MSR基因。在这篇综述中,我们首次比较了从蓝藻到高等植物的光合生物中MSR基因家族的结构。     

小桐子甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶A的基因克隆及生物信息学分析

逆境胁迫下产生的过量活性氧会导致蛋白质分子中甲硫氨酸(Met)被氧化成甲硫氨酸亚砜(Met SO),甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶(MSR)则可以还原亚砜结构而恢复受损伤蛋白质的活性,以抵抗逆境造成的各种氧化胁迫。基于本课题组先前获得的小桐子低温锻炼转录组数据,筛选到小桐子甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶A基因,并克隆到该基因的全长c DNA,命名为Jc MSRA(Gen Bank登录号:KJ670154.1)。结果表明,该c DNA序列全长879 bp,完整开放阅读框780 bp,编码259个氨基酸,理论分子量为29.1 k D,等电点为8.75。Jc MSRA蛋白具有GCFW保守序列及C端保守Cys残基。聚类分析表明,Jc MSRA属于A型MSR家族,与芸豆的亲缘关系最近,序列同源性达到70.3%。     

根瘤菌中甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶底物蛋白的筛选与相互作用验证

根瘤菌在侵染豆科植物过程中会受到活性氧的氧化胁迫,含甲硫氨酸的蛋白质易被氧化成甲硫氨酸亚砜导致蛋白结构和功能改变,甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶(methionine sulfoxide reductases, Msrs)能将甲硫氨酸亚砜还原成甲硫氨酸,恢复蛋白的结构和功能。前期在华癸中慢生根瘤菌(Mesorhizobium huakuii) 7653R基因组中发现有4个Msrs和抗氧化压力密切相关,但其作用机制仍不清楚。【目的】通过筛选4个Msrs的相互作用底物,为阐明4个Msrs在M. huakuii 7653R中的作用机制提供证据。【方法】按照甲硫氨酸含量由高到低统计M. huakuii 7653R中所有蛋白的分布情况;利用蛋白互作网站预测获得4个Msrs的候选互作底物,将预测互作底物进行功能注释基因本体(gene ontology, GO)分析和京都基因和基因组百科全书(Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes, KEGG)代谢通路分析;通过细菌双杂交初步验证它们之间的相互作用。【结果】甲硫氨酸含量百分数分布基本呈正态分布形式,位于中间百分数的蛋白最多,位于两边的蛋白较少;筛选获得有6个抗氧化酶和6个转录调控因子是4个Msrs的候选互作底物;细菌双杂交显示,有2个抗氧化酶和5个转录调控因子确实和4个Msrs存在不同程度的相互作用。【结论】为阐明Msrs在根瘤菌M. huakuii 7653R中抵抗氧化压力的作用机制提供了证据,为揭示根瘤菌抵抗活性氧提供了新的思路和方向。     

腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶的基因及结构研究进展

腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶催化ATP和L-甲硫氨酸合成腺苷甲硫氨酸,在不同生物体和不同组织中腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶的存在形式和编码酶的基因都有差别,本文综述了不同生物的腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶的基因、酶结构、酶反应动力学及应用前景。     

鲍曼不动杆菌MsrA蛋白原核表达载体的构建、纯化及氧化应激条件下的表达

目的以鲍曼不动杆菌甲硫氨酸亚砜还原酶A(methionine sulfoxide reductase A,MsrA)构建p ET28a-MsrA并表达、纯化原核表达重组质粒,观察在氧化应激条件下MsrA的表达水平,为其抗氧化功能的研究提供依据。方法设计并合成分别带NdeⅠ和XhoⅠ酶切位点的MsrA引物,用PCR方法扩增MsrA基因,构建p ET28a-MsrA重组质粒并转化大肠杆菌,用异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside,IPTG)诱导重组MsrA蛋白表达,经Ni2+亲和层析分离纯化。利用荧光定量PCR方法,观察在氧化应激条件下MsrA蛋白的表达量。结果构建了编码MsrA蛋白的重组质粒p ET28a-MsrA,SDS-PAGE显示在相对分子质量约22 000处有一明显条带的重组MsrA蛋白,并利用Ni2+亲和层析柱纯化获得纯度较高的MsrA蛋白。氧化应激也可快速诱导MsrA蛋白的表达。结论成功构建了p ET28a-MsrA重组质粒及表达纯化系统,且氧化应激条件下MsrA蛋白表达上调。     

肿瘤中甲硫氨酸代谢及其相关基因的表达调控

甲硫氨酸(methionine)作为人体必需氨基酸,生理功能多样,在肿瘤代谢重编程过程中具有重要意义。研究发现,多种肿瘤细胞对外源性甲硫氨酸存在依赖性,该效应被称为Hoffman效应。在人体内,甲硫氨酸经甲硫氨酸循环代谢,参与一碳单位代谢、叶酸循环,以及多胺、谷胱甘肽、半胱氨酸和核苷酸等多种物质的合成。肿瘤中常出现甲硫氨酸代谢的改变,并伴随甲硫氨酸代谢相关酶基因表达的异常,其中以甲硫氨酸腺苷转移酶(methionine adenosyltransferase, MAT)相关基因表达改变及甲硫腺苷磷酸化酶(methylthioadenosine phosphorylase,MTAP)基因的缺失最为常见,二者可分别引起甲硫氨酸循环及甲硫氨酸补救合成途径的异常,进而导致甲基供体S-腺苷甲硫氨酸(S-adenosylmethionine, SAM)的生成减少和甲硫腺苷(methylthioadenosine, MTA)的堆积,其与肿瘤的发生、发展和转移等活动密切相关。由甲硫氨酸的代谢改变和代谢酶的基因表达异常,分别衍生出2种不同的治疗策略,即甲硫氨酸限制疗法和靶向治疗。本文将从甲硫氨酸代谢出发,阐述肿瘤中甲硫氨酸依懒性、肿瘤细胞MAT和MTAP相关基因的表达调控,并概述甲硫氨酸相关肿瘤治疗方案的新进展与新问题,为肿瘤治疗方案的进一步探索提供新思路。     

代谢工程改造大肠杆菌一碳模块高效合成L-甲硫氨酸

L-甲硫氨酸又名L-蛋氨酸,是人体必需8种氨基酸之一,在饲料、医药、食品领域具有重要应用。以实验室前期构建的M2(Escherichia coli W3110?IJAHFEBC/PAM)为出发菌株,以模块化代谢工程策略构建了一株L-甲硫氨酸高产菌株。首先通过过表达亚甲基四氢叶酸还原酶(methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase,MetF)和筛选不同来源的丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶(hydroxymethyltransferase,GlyA),增强了一碳模块甲基供体的生成,优化了一碳模块。随后针对一碳模块的前体供应,过表达了胱醚裂解酶(cysteamine lyase,MalY)和半胱氨酸内运基因(fliY),有效地提高了L-高半胱氨酸和L-半胱氨酸的供应。最终摇瓶发酵L-甲硫氨酸的产量由2.8 g/L提高至4.05 g/L,5 L发酵罐中达到18.26 g/L。研究结果表明,一碳模块对L-甲硫氨酸的生物合成具有十分重要的影响,在细胞内通过优化一碳模块,可以实现L-甲硫氨酸的高效生物合成。本研究为进一步提高微生物发酵生产L-甲硫氨酸的水平奠定了基础。     

甲硫氨酸γ-裂解酶基因在大肠杆菌中的高效表达和活性

【背景】为了开发海洋蕴藏的新型微生物资源,本研究团队采用不依赖培养的宏基因组技术,构建了深海宏基因组文库,并对其中的重要基因进行后续研究。【目的】使用来自深海宏基因组文库中的甲硫氨酸γ-裂解酶基因(mgl)在大肠杆菌中高效表达并对其活性进行检测。【方法】将mgl基因克隆到表达载体pET-28a(+)并转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),经异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导,并对表达条件进行优化,获得甲硫氨酸γ-裂解酶(Methionine-lyase,r MGL)的大量表达。亲和层析纯化重组蛋白后对酶的活性进行研究。【结果】亲和纯化后获得大量表达蛋白r MGL,大小与预测的46 kD相符合,并具有很高的裂解L-甲硫氨酸的活性。r MGL能催化L-甲硫氨酸和DL-同型半胱氨酸的裂解,但几乎不作用于L-半胱氨酸和L-胱氨酸,其中对DL-同型半胱氨酸的催化效率比对L-甲硫氨酸的催化效率高,相对活性约为对L-甲硫氨酸催化效率的1.4倍。【结论】来自深海宏基因组文库中的mgl基因能够利用p ET-28a(+)/BL21(DE3)高效表达r MGL。     

S-腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶反应条件的优化

优化了重组毕赤酵母表达的S-腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶催化L-甲硫氨酸(Met)和ATP合成 S-腺苷甲硫氨酸的条件,确定了该酶的最适酶活力检测条件为20mmol/L的L -Met,26mmol/ L的ATP,52mmol/L的MgCl2,300mmol/L的KCl,8mmol/L的还原型谷胱甘肽,100mmol/ L的Tris,反应液pH 8.5,35°C反应 1h,比活力达到23.84U/mg.该酶还可以催化以DL-Met代替L-Met为底物的S-腺苷甲硫氨酸合成反应,以降低生产成本.     

微生物转化生产S-腺苷甲硫氨酸

S-腺苷甲硫氨酸(S-adenosyl-L-methionine,SAM)是具有广阔市场前景的活性氨基酸,微生物转化法是近年来报道较多的SAM生产方法.综合近年来SAM生产菌株的基因改造和发酵优化方面的进展,从提高SAM合成酶表达和酶活、优化甲醇和甘油的流加方式、改善ATP的生成和L-甲硫氨酸的补料、阻断下游代谢路径等方面,综述了促进SAM合成及其积累的多重策略及机制.最后结合笔者多年研究实践,讨论了微生物转化生产SAM的未来研究方向.     

Dual Sites of Protein Initiation Control the Localization and Myristoylation of Methionine Sulfoxide Reductase A

Methionine sulfoxide reductase A is an essential enzyme in the antioxidant system, which scavenges reactive oxygen species through cyclic oxidation and reduction of methionine and methionine sulfoxide. In mammals, one gene encodes two forms of the reductase, one targeted to the cytosol and the other to mitochondria. The cytosolic form displays faster mobility than the mitochondrial form, suggesting a lower molecular weight for the former. The apparent size difference and targeting to two cellular compartments had been proposed to result from differential splicing of mRNA. We now show that differential targeting is effected by use of two initiation sites, one of which includes a mitochondrial targeting sequence, whereas the other does not. We also demonstrate that the mass of the cytosolic form is not less than that of the mitochondrial form; the faster mobility of cytosolic form is due to its myristoylation. Lipidation of methionine sulfoxide reductase A occurs in the mouse, in transfected tissue culture cells, and even in a cell-free protein synthesis system. The physiologic role of myristoylation of MsrA remains to be elucidated.     

Brain Protein Synthesis in the Conscious Rat Using L-[35S]Methionine: Relationship of Methionine Specific Activity Between Plasma and Precursor Compartment and Evaluation of Methionine Metabolic Pathways

The method previously developed for the measurement of rates of methionine incorporation into brain proteins assumed that methionine derived from protein degradation did not recycle into the precursor pool for protein synthesis and that the metabolism of methionine via the transmethylation pathway was negligible. To evaluate the degree of recycling, we have compared, under steady-state conditions, the specific activity of L-[35S] methionine in the tRNA-bound pool to that of plasma. The relative contribution of methionine from protein degradation to the precursor pool was 26%. Under the same conditions, the relative rate of methionine flux into the transmethylation cycle was estimated to be 10% of the rate of methionine incorporation into brain proteins. These results indicate the following: (a) there is significant recycling of unlabeled methionine derived from protein degradation in brain; and (b) the metabolism of methionine is directed mainly towards protein synthesis. At normal plasma amino acid levels, methionine is the amino acid which, to date, presents the lowest degree of dilution in the precursor pool for protein synthesis. L-[35S]-Methionine, therefore, presents radiobiochemical properties required to measure, with minimal underestimation, rates of brain protein synthesis in vivo.     

Formation of methionine sulfoxide during glycoxidation and lipoxidation of ribonuclease A

Chemical modification of proteins by reactive oxygen species affects protein structure, function and turnover during aging and chronic disease. Some of this damage is direct, for example by oxidation of amino acids in protein by peroxide or other reactive oxygen species, but autoxidation of ambient carbohydrates and lipids amplifies both the oxidative and chemical damage to protein and leads to formation of advanced glycoxidation and lipoxidation end-products (AGE/ALEs). In previous work, we have observed the oxidation of methionine during glycoxidation and lipoxidation reactions, and in the present work we set out to determine if methionine sulfoxide (MetSO) in protein was a more sensitive indicator of glycoxidative and lipoxidative damage than AGE/ALEs. We also investigated the sites of methionine oxidation in a model protein, ribonuclease A (RNase), in order to determine whether analysis of the site specificity of methionine oxidation in proteins could be used to indicate the source of the oxidative damage, i.e. carbohydrate or lipid. We describe here the development of an LC/MS/MS for quantification of methionine oxidation at specific sites in RNase during glycoxidation or lipoxidation by glucose or arachidonate, respectively. Glycoxidized and lipoxidized RNase were analyzed by tryptic digestion, followed by reversed phase HPLC and mass spectrometric analysis to quantify methionine and methionine sulfoxide containing peptides. We observed that: (1) compared to AGE/ALEs, methionine sulfoxide was a more sensitive biomarker of glycoxidative or lipoxidative damage to proteins; (2) regardless of oxidizable substrate, the relative rate of oxidation of methionine residues in RNase was Met29>Met30>Met13, with Met79 being resistant to oxidation; and (3) arachidonate produced a significantly greater yield of MetSO, compared to glucose. The methods developed here should be useful for assessing a protein's overall exposure to oxidative stress from a variety of sources in vivo.     

Methionine oxidation perturbs the structural core of the prion protein and suggests a generic misfolding pathway

Oxidative stress and misfolding of the prion protein (PrP(C)) are fundamental to prion diseases. We have therefore probed the effect of oxidation on the structure and stability of PrP(C). Urea unfolding studies indicate that H(2)O(2) oxidation reduces the thermodynamic stability of PrP(C) by as much as 9 kJ/mol. (1)H-(15)N NMR studies indicate methionine oxidation perturbs key hydrophobic residues on one face of helix-C as follows: Met-205, Val-209, and Met-212 together with residues Val-160 and Tyr-156. These hydrophobic residues pack together and form the structured core of the protein, stabilizing its ternary structure. Copper-catalyzed oxidation of PrP(C) causes a more significant alteration of the structure, generating a monomeric molten globule species that retains its native helical content. Further copper-catalyzed oxidation promotes extended β-strand structures that lack a cooperative fold. This transition from the helical molten globule to β-conformation has striking similarities to a misfolding intermediate generated at low pH. PrP may therefore share a generic misfolding pathway to amyloid fibers, irrespective of the conditions promoting misfolding. Our observations support the hypothesis that oxidation of PrP destabilizes the native fold of PrP(C), facilitating the transition to PrP(Sc). This study gives a structural and thermodynamic explanation for the high levels of oxidized methionine in scrapie isolates.     

Development and Regional Distribution of Methionine Synthetase in Rabbit Brain

The development and regional distribution of methionine synthetase (EC 2.1.1.13) in rabbit brain was determined. In adult rabbits, the specific activity (units per milligram protein) of methionine synthetase in cortex, cerebellum, brain stem, and corpus striatum was comparable to the specific activity in whole brain (0.5 units/mg). In the first few weeks of life, the specific activity of methionine synthetase in whole rabbit brain declined from a value of 1.1 units/mg at 1 day of age to 0.5 units/mg at 6–10 weeks. Two-year-old rabbits had 0.6 units/mg in whole brain. These results show that: (a) methionine synthetase is distributed widely in mammalian brain and (b) methionine synthetase activity in brain declines relatively little with development.     

Decrease in Peptide Methionine Sulfoxide Reductase in Alzheimer''s Disease Brain

Previous studies have shown that the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is linked to oxidative stress. Oxidative damage to different biomolecular components of the brain is a characteristic feature of AD. Recent evidence suggests that methionine may act as an antioxidant defense molecule in proteins by its ability to scavenge oxidants and, in the process, undergo oxidation to form methionine sulfoxide. The enzyme peptide, methionine sulfoxide reductase (MsrA), reverses methionine sulfoxide back to methionine, which once again is able to scavenge oxidants. The purpose of this study was to measure the activity of MsrA in the brain of AD patients compared with control subjects. Our results showed that there was a decline in MsrA activity in all brain regions studied in AD and this decline reached statistical significance in the superior and middle temporal gyri (p < 0.001), inferior parietal lobule (p < 0.05), and the hippocampus (p < 0.05) in AD. An elevation of protein carbonyl content was found in all brain regions except the cerebellum in AD and reached statistical significance in the superior and middle temporal gyri and hippocampus. Messenger RNA analysis suggests that the loss in enzyme activity may be the result of a posttranslational modification of MsrA or a defect of translation resulting in inferior processing of the MsrA mRNA. Our results suggest that a decline in MsrA activity could reduce the antioxidant defenses and increase the oxidation of critical proteins in neurons in the brain in AD.     

Methionine oxidation of Sup35 protein induces formation of the [PSI+] prion in a yeast peroxiredoxin mutant

The frequency with which the yeast [PSI(+)] prion form of Sup35 arises de novo is controlled by a number of genetic and environmental factors. We have previously shown that in cells lacking the antioxidant peroxiredoxin proteins Tsa1 and Tsa2, the frequency of de novo formation of [PSI(+)] is greatly elevated. We show here that Tsa1/Tsa2 also function to suppress the formation of the [PIN(+)] prion form of Rnq1. However, although oxidative stress increases the de novo formation of both [PIN(+)] and [PSI(+)], it does not overcome the requirement of cells being [PIN(+)] to form the [PSI(+)] prion. We use an anti-methionine sulfoxide antibody to show that methionine oxidation is elevated in Sup35 during oxidative stress conditions. Abrogating Sup35 methionine oxidation by overexpressing methionine sulfoxide reductase (MSRA) prevents [PSI(+)] formation, indicating that Sup35 oxidation may underlie the switch from a soluble to an aggregated form of Sup35. In contrast, we were unable to detect methionine oxidation of Rnq1, and MSRA overexpression did not affect [PIN(+)] formation in a tsa1 tsa2 mutant. The molecular basis of how yeast and mammalian prions form infectious amyloid-like structures de novo is poorly understood. Our data suggest a causal link between Sup35 protein oxidation and de novo [PSI(+)] prion formation.     

The physiological role of reversible methionine oxidation

Sulfur-containing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine are particularly vulnerable to oxidation. Oxidation of cysteine and methionine in their free amino acid form renders them unavailable for metabolic processes while their oxidation in the protein-bound state is a common post-translational modification in all organisms and usually alters the function of the protein. In the majority of cases, oxidation causes inactivation of proteins. Yet, an increasing number of examples have been described where reversible cysteine oxidation is part of a sophisticated mechanism to control protein function based on the redox state of the protein. While for methionine the dogma is still that its oxidation inhibits protein function, reversible methionine oxidation is now being recognized as a powerful means of triggering protein activity. This mode of regulation involves oxidation of methionine to methionine sulfoxide leading to activated protein function, and inactivation is accomplished by reduction of methionine sulfoxide back to methionine catalyzed by methionine sulfoxide reductases. Given the similarity to thiol-based redox-regulation of protein function, methionine oxidation is now established as a novel mode of redox-regulation of protein function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Thiol-Based Redox Processes.     

Molecular Evolution of Peptide Methionine Sulfoxide Reductases (MsrA and MsrB): On the Early Development of a Mechanism That Protects Against Oxidative Damage

Methionine sulfoxide reductases, enzymes that reverse the oxidation of methionine residues, have been described in a wide range of species. The reduction of the diastereoisomers of oxidized methionine is catalyzed by two different monomeric methionine sulfoxide reductases (MsrA and MsrB) and is best understood as an evolutionary response to high levels of oxygen either in the Earth’s atmosphere or possibly in more localized environments. Phylogenetic analyses of these proteins suggest that their distribution is the outcome of a complex history including many paralogy and lateral gene transfer events. Electronic Supplementary Material Electronic Supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users. [Reviewing Editor: Dr. Martin Kreitman]     

甲硫氨酸限制对骨肉瘤细胞增殖、凋亡及铁死亡的影响

摘要 目的：探讨甲硫氨酸限制对骨肉瘤细胞增殖,凋亡和铁死亡的影响。方法：使用细胞计数检测剥夺甲硫氨酸对三株不同的骨肉瘤细胞系增殖的影响;高通量测序（RNA-seq）分析甲硫氨酸限制后骨肉瘤细胞的转录组学变化;流式细胞术检测细胞周期,凋亡以及ROS,脂质ROS水平;Western blot检测铁死亡关键蛋白谷胱甘肽过氧化物GPX4以及铁死亡标志蛋白前列腺素内过氧化物合成Cox-2的表达。结果：甲硫氨酸限制显著抑制骨肉瘤细胞的增殖（P<0.001）;RNA-seq分析筛选出1719个差异表达基因,基因富集分析发现甲硫氨酸限制可显著激活铁死亡通路并显著抑制细胞周期通路;细胞实验证实甲硫氨酸限制将骨肉瘤细胞阻滞在G2M期,显著诱导凋亡细胞比例增加;同时,细胞内Cox-2的表达增加,GPX4的活性降低,活性氧和脂质活性氧积累,最终导致细胞死亡,且这种作用可以被铁死亡抑制剂Fer-1部分挽救。结论：本研究的结果为甲硫氨酸限制治疗骨肉瘤提供了一定的科学依据。