Sided functions of an arginine-agmatine antiporter oriented in liposomes

The arginine-dependent extreme acid resistance system helps enteric bacteria survive the harsh gastric environment. At the center of this multiprotein system is an arginine-agmatine antiporter, AdiC. To maintain cytoplasmic pH, AdiC imports arginine and exports its decarboxylated product, agmatine, resulting in a net extrusion of one "virtual proton" in each turnover. The random orientation of AdiC in reconstituted liposomes throws up an obstacle to quantifying its transport mechanism. To overcome this problem, we introduced a mutation, S26C, near the substrate-binding site. This mutant exhibits substrate recognition and pH-dependent activity similar to those of the wild-type protein but loses function completely upon reaction with thiol reagents. The membrane-impermeant MTSES reagent can then be used as a cleanly sided inhibitor to silence those S26C-AdiC proteins whose extracellular portion projects from the external side of the liposome. Alternatively, the membrane-permeant MTSEA and membrane-impermeant reducing reagent, TCEP, can be used together to inhibit proteins in the opposite orientation. This approach allows steady-state kinetic analysis of AdiC in a sided fashion. Arginine and agmatine have similar Michaelis-Menten parameters for both sides of the protein, while the extracellular side selects arginine over argininamide, a mimic of the carboxylate-protonated form of arginine, more effectively than does the cytoplasmic side. Moreover, the two sides of AdiC have different pH sensitivities. AdiC activity increases to a plateau at pH 4 as the extracellular side is acidified, while the cytoplasmic side shows an optimal pH of 5.5, with further acidification inhibiting transport. This oriented system allows more precise analysis of AdiC-mediated substrate transport than has been previously available and permits comparison to the situation experienced by the bacterial membrane under acid stress.     

A bacterial arginine-agmatine exchange transporter involved in extreme acid resistance

The arginine-dependent extreme acid resistance response of Escherichia coli operates by decarboxylating arginine. AdiC, a membrane antiporter, catalyzes arginine influx coupled to efflux of the decarboxylation product agmatine, effectively exporting a proton in each turnover. Using the adiC coding sequence under control of a tetracycline promoter in an E. coli vector, we expressed and purified the transport-protein with a yield of approximately 10 mg/liter bacterial culture. Glutaraldehyde cross-linking experiments indicate that the protein is a homodimer in detergent micelles and lipid membranes. Purified AdiC reconstituted into liposomes exchanges arginine and agmatine in a strictly coupled, electrogenic fashion. Kinetic analysis yields K(m) approximately 80 microm for Arg, in the same range as its dissociation constant determined by isothermal titration calorimetry.     

Role of Transmembrane Domain 8 in Substrate Selectivity and Translocation of SteT,a Member of the l-Amino Acid Transporter (LAT) Family

System l-amino acid transporters (LAT) belong to the amino acid, polyamine, and organic cation superfamily of transporters and include the light subunits of heteromeric amino acid transporters and prokaryotic homologues. Cysteine reactivity of SteT (serine/threonine antiporter) has been used here to study the substrate-binding site of LAT transporters. Residue Cys-291, in transmembrane domain 8 (TM8), is inactivated by thiol reagents in a substrate protectable manner. Surprisingly, DTT activated the transporter by reducing residue Cys-291. Cysteine-scanning mutagenesis of TM8 showed DTT activation in the single-cysteine mutants S287C, G294C, and S298C, lining the same α-helical face. S-Thiolation in Escherichia coli cells resulted in complete inactivation of the single-cysteine mutant G294C. l-Serine blocked DTT activation with an EC₅₀ similar to the apparent K_M of this mutant. Thus, S-thiolation abolished substrate translocation but not substrate binding. Mutation of Lys-295, to Cys (K295C) broadened the profile of inhibitors and the spectrum of substrates with the exception of imino acids. A structural model of SteT based on the structural homologue AdiC (arginine/agmatine antiporter) positions residues Cys-291 and Lys-295 in the putative substrate binding pocket. All this suggests that Lys-295 is a main determinant in the recognition of the side chain of SteT substrates. In contrast, Gly-294 is not facing the surface, suggesting conformational changes involving TM8 during the transport cycle. Our results suggest that TM8 sculpts the substrate-binding site and undergoes conformational changes during the transport cycle of SteT.     

The gene cluster for agmatine catabolism of Enterococcus faecalis: study of recombinant putrescine transcarbamylase and agmatine deiminase and a snapshot of agmatine deiminase catalyzing its reaction

Enterococcus faecalis makes ATP from agmatine in three steps catalyzed by agmatine deiminase (AgDI), putrescine transcarbamylase (PTC), and carbamate kinase (CK). An antiporter exchanges putrescine for agmatine. We have cloned the E. faecalis ef0732 and ef0734 genes of the reported gene cluster for agmatine catabolism, overexpressed them in Escherichia coli, purified the products, characterized them functionally as PTC and AgDI, and crystallized and X-ray diffracted them. The 1.65-Angstroms-resolution structure of AgDI forming a covalent adduct with an agmatine-derived amidine reactional intermediate is described. We provide definitive identification of the gene cluster for agmatine catabolism and confirm that ornithine is a genuine but poor PTC substrate, suggesting that PTC (found here to be trimeric) evolved from ornithine transcarbamylase. N-(Phosphonoacetyl)-putrescine was prepared and shown to strongly (K(i) = 10 nM) and selectively inhibit PTC and to improve PTC crystallization. We find that E. faecalis AgDI, which is committed to ATP generation, closely resembles the AgDIs involved in making polyamines, suggesting the recruitment of a polyamine-synthesizing AgDI into the AgDI pathway. The arginine deiminase (ADI) pathway of arginine catabolism probably supplied the genes for PTC and CK but not those for the agmatine/putrescine antiporter, and thus the AgDI and ADI pathways are not related by a single "en bloc" duplication event. The AgDI crystal structure reveals a tetramer with a five-blade propeller subunit fold, proves that AgDI closely resembles ADI despite a lack of sequence identity, and explains substrate affinity, selectivity, and Cys357-mediated-covalent catalysis. A three-tongued agmatine-triggered gating opens or blocks access to the active center.     

Outer and inner membrane proteins compose an arginine-agmatine exchange system in Chlamydophila pneumoniae

Most chlamydial strains have a pyruvoyl-dependent decarboxylase protein that converts L-arginine to agmatine. However, chlamydiae do not produce arginine, so they must import it from their host. Chlamydophila pneumoniae has a gene cluster encoding a putative outer membrane porin (CPn1033 or aaxA), an arginine decarboxylase (CPn1032 or aaxB), and a putative cytoplasmic membrane transporter (CPn1031 or aaxC). The aaxC gene was expressed in Escherichia coli producing an integral cytoplasmic membrane protein that catalyzed the exchange of L-arginine for agmatine. Expression of the aaxA gene produced an outer membrane protein that enhanced the arginine uptake and decarboxylation activity of cells coexpressing aaxB and aaxC. This chlamydial arginine/agmatine exchange system complemented an E. coli mutant missing the native arginine-dependent acid resistance system. These cells survived extreme acid shock in the presence of L-arginine. Biochemical and evolutionary analysis showed the aaxABC genes evolved convergently with the enteric arginine degradation system, and they could have a different physiological role in chlamydial cells. The chlamydial system uniquely includes an outer membrane porin, and it is most active at a higher pH from 3 to 5. The chlamydial AaxC transporter was resistant to cadaverine, L-lysine and L-ornithine, which inhibit the E. coli AdiC antiporter.     

Evaluation of the biological potency of new agmatine analogs of growth hormone-releasing hormone in the bovine.

Four new growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) analogs with C-terminal agmatine were compared with the parent human GHRH(1-29)NH2 fragment to assess their abilities to increase serum concentrations of growth hormone (GH) in the bovine. The four analogs were: [D-Ala2, Nle27] GHRH(1-28)Agm (JG-73); [desNH2-Tyr1, Ala15, Nle27] GHRH(1-28)Agm (MZ-2-51); [desNH2-Tyr1, Ala15, D-Lys21, Nle27] GHRH(1-28)Agm (MZ-2-75); and [desNH2-Tyr1, D-Lys12,21, Ala15, Nle27] GHRH(1-28)Agm (MZ-2-87). The special characteristic of all four GHRH analogs is that arginine was replaced by agmatine (Agm) in Position 29. Five pregnant Holstein cows received these peptides subcutaneously at the following doses: 0.0156, 0.0625, 0.25, 1, and 4 micrograms/kg body wt. Each cow received each analog-dose combination according to a 5 x 5 Greco-Latin square design repeated for the 5-week treatment. Each cow also received saline vehicle only at the end of the 5-week treatment. Blood samples were collected from 30 min before until 360 min after treatment injection. Total area under the GH response curves for the 6-hr sampling period for each dose of each GHRH analog was compared. There was a linear dose-dependent GH release in response to hGHRH(1-29)NH2 and its four GHRH(1-28)Agm analogs. At the dose of 0.25 micrograms/kg, two GHRH analogs, JG-73 and MZ-2-75, stimulated greater GH release than hGHRH(1-29)NH2 (P less than 0.05). No differences were seen at the two lowest doses, 0.0625 and 0.156 micrograms/kg. When both total area under the GH response curves and GH peak amplitudes for each treatment were averaged for all doses, JG-73 and MZ-2-75 stimulated greater GH release than hGHRH(1-29)NH2 (P less than 0.05). In summary, three GHRH(1-28)Agm analogs, JG-73, MZ-2-75, and MZ-2-51, were found to be 11.8, 11.3, and 6.5 times more potent, respectively, on a weight basis, than hGHRH(1-29)NH2 in stimulating the release of GH in cows.     

Projection structure of a member of the amino acid/polyamine/organocation transporter superfamily

The L-arginine/agmatine antiporter AdiC is a key component of the arginine-dependent extreme acid resistance system of Escherichia coli. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that AdiC belongs to the amino acid/polyamine/organocation (APC) transporter superfamily having sequence identities of 15-17% to eukaryotic and human APC transporters. For functional and structural characterization, we cloned, overexpressed, and purified wild-type AdiC and the point mutant AdiC-W293L, which is unable to bind and consequently transport L-arginine. Purified detergent-solubilized AdiC particles were dimeric. Reconstitution experiments yielded two-dimensional crystals of AdiC-W293L diffracting beyond 6 angstroms resolution from which we determined the projection structure at 6.5 angstroms resolution. The projection map showed 10-12 density peaks per monomer and suggested mainly tilted helices with the exception of one distinct perpendicular membrane spanning alpha-helix. Comparison of AdiC-W293L with the projection map of the oxalate/formate antiporter from Oxalobacter formigenes, a member from the major facilitator superfamily, indicated different structures. Thus, two-dimensional crystals of AdiC-W293L yielded the first detailed view of a transport protein from the APC superfamily at sub-nanometer resolution.     

胍丁胺对大鼠海马 CA1区神经元放电的影响

应用细胞外记录单位放电技术,在大鼠海马脑片上观察了胍丁胺(agmatine,Agm)对CAl区神经元放电的影响。实验结果如下：(1)在47个海马脑片放电单位上灌流Agm(0．1—1．0μmol／L)2min,有38个单位(80．9％)自发放电频率明显降低,且呈剂量依赖性,9个单位(19．1％)无明显的反应;(2)预先用0．2mmol／L的L-谷氨酸(L-glutamate,L-Glu)灌流12个海马脑片放电单位,有9个单位(75％)放电频率明显增加,表现为癫痫样放电,在此基础上灌流Agm(1．0μmol／L)2min,其癫痫样放电被抑制;(3)在7个海马脑片放电单位上给予L型钙通道激动剂Bay K8644(0．1μmoL／L)时,有6个单位(85．7％)放电频率明显增加,另外1个单位(14．3％)无明显变化,再给予Agm(1．0μmol／L)2min,其放电频率被明显抑制;(4)13个CAl放电单位,灌流50μmoL／L一氧化氮合酶(NOS)抑制剂N^G-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester。(L-NAME)5min后其放电频率明显增加,在此基础上再给予Agm(1．0μmol／L)2min,有11个单位(84．6％)的放电频率被抑制,有2个单位(15．4％)的变化不明显。上述结果提示：胍丁胺能抑制海马CAl区神经元自发放电以及由谷氨酸、BayK8644和L-NAME诱发的放电,这一抑制效应可能与胍丁胺阻断CAl区锥体细胞上的NMDA受体,并减少钙离子内流有关。     

Transport of diamines by Enterococcus faecalis is mediated by an agmatine-putrescine antiporter.

Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 11700 is able to use arginine and the diamine agmatine as a sole energy source. Via the highly homologous deiminase pathways, arginine and agmatine are converted into CO2, NH3, and the end products ornithine and putrescine, respectively. In the arginine deiminase pathway, uptake of arginine and excretion of ornithine are mediated by an arginine-ornithine antiport system. The translocation of agmatine was studied in whole cells grown in the presence of arginine, agmatine, or glucose. Rapid uncoupler-insensitive uptake of agmatine was observed only in agmatine-grown cells. A high intracellular putrescine pool was maintained by these cells, and this pool was rapidly released by external putrescine or agmatine but not by arginine or ornithine. Kinetic analysis revealed competitive inhibition for uptake between putrescine and agmatine. Agmatine uptake by membrane vesicles was observed only when the membrane vesicles were preloaded with putrescine. Uptake of agmatine was driven by the outwardly directed putrescine concentration gradient, which is continuously sustained by the metabolic process. Uptake of agmatine and extrusion of putrescine by agmatine-grown cells of E. faecalis appeared to be catalyzed by an agmatine-putrescine antiporter. This transport system functionally resembled the previously described arginine-ornithine antiport, which was exclusively induced when the cells were grown in the presence of arginine.     

胍丁胺对离体大鼠主动脉张力的影响及其受体机制

采用离体血管环灌流方法,观察了胍丁胺（agmatine,Agm)对大鼠胸主动脉张力的影响,并探讨其受体机制,实验结果如下：（1）在苯肾上腺素PE,10^-6mol/L)引起血管预收缩的 基础上,Agm(10^-7-10^-2mol/L)剂量依赖性地舒张大鼠胸主动脉。（2）上述舒张反应在去除内皮和应用NOS抑制剂N^-G-mnitro-L-arginine methyl ester(L-NAME,0.5mmol/L)后依然存在,提示Agm的舒血管作用为非内皮依赖性,并无NO的参与。（3）在高Ca^2 (3mmol/L)引起血管预收缩的基础上,Agm也可剂量依赖性地舒张大鼠主动脉。（4）预先应用α2－肾上腺素能受体（α2－adrenergic receptor,α2－AR）和咪唑啉受体（IR）阻断剂idazoxan(10^-4mol/L)则可完全阻断Agm的上述作用。（5）应用α2－AR拮抗剂yohimbine(10^-4mol/L)可部分阻断Agm对大鼠主动脉的舒张反应,以上结果表明,Agm对大鼠主动脉血管的舒张作用是由α2－AR和IR共同介导。     

The therapeutic and nutraceutical potential of agmatine,and its enhanced production using Aspergillus oryzae

Agmatine, a natural polyamine produced from arginine by arginine decarboxylase, was first discovered in 1910, but its physiological significance was disregarded for a century. The recent rediscovery of agmatine as an endogenous ligand for α2-adrenergic and imidazoline receptors in the mammalian brain suggests that this amine may be a promising therapeutic agent for treating a broad spectrum of central nervous system-associated diseases. In the past two decades, numerous preclinical and several clinical studies have demonstrated its pleiotropic modulatory functions on various molecular targets related to neurotransmission, nitric oxide synthesis, glucose metabolism, polyamine metabolism, and carnitine biosynthesis, indicating potential for therapeutic applications and use as a nutraceutical to improve quality of life. An enzymatic activity of arginine decarboxylase which produces agmatine from arginine was low in mammals, suggesting that a large portion of the agmatine is supplemented from diets and gut microbiota. In the present review, we focus on and concisely summarize the beneficial effects of agmatine for treating depression, anxiety, neuropathic pain, cognitive decline and learning impairment, dependence on drugs, and metabolic diseases (diabetes and obesity), since these fields have been intensively investigated. We also briefly discuss agmatine content in foodstuffs, and a simple approach for enhancing agmatine production using the filamentous fungus Aspergillus oryzae, widely used for the production of various Asian fermented foods.     

胍丁胺对大鼠心室肌细胞内游离钙浓度的影响

本研究旨在观察胍丁胺 (agmatine ,Agm)对分离大鼠心室肌细胞内游离钙浓度 ( [Ca2 +]i)的影响。用酶解方法分离大鼠心室肌细胞 ,用Fluo 3 AM负载 ,然后用激光共聚焦法测定单个心室肌细胞 [Ca2 +]i 的荧光强度 (fluorescenceintensity ,FI) ,结果以FI或相对荧光强度 (F/F0 % )表示。实验结果表明 ,在正常台氏液 (含钙 1 0mmol/L)和无钙台氏液中 ,单个大鼠心室肌细胞的荧光密度分别为 12 8 8± 13 8和 119 6± 13 6,两者无差异。Agm 0 1、1和 10mmol/L浓度依赖性地显著降低细胞的钙浓度 ;在正常台氏液中加入EGTA 3mmol/L ,Agm同样降低细胞的钙浓度。KCl 60mmol/L ,PE 3 0 μmol/L ,和Bay K 864 410 μmol/L均升高心室肌细胞的[Ca2 +]i。Agm同样降低高浓度KCl、Bay K 864 4和PE诱发的心室肌细胞 [Ca2 +]i 升高。当细胞外液钙浓度由 1mmol/L增加到 10mmol/L时 ,诱发心室肌细胞钙超载 ,同时部分心室肌细胞产生可传播的钙波 (Ca2 +wave) ,Agm 1mmol/L降低钙波的传播速度和持续时间 ,最终阻断钙波。以上结果提示 ,Agm对心室肌细胞的胞浆[Ca2 +]i具有抑制作用 ,此作用通过阻断电压依赖性钙通道而实现 ;并可能与抑制大鼠心室肌细胞内钙释放有关     

Efficiency of detergents at maintaining membrane protein structures in their biologically relevant forms

High-resolution structural analysis of membrane proteins by X-ray crystallography or solution NMR spectroscopy often requires their solubilization in the membrane-mimetic environments of detergents. Yet the choice of a detergent suitable for a given study remains largely empirical. In the present work, we considered the micelle-crystallized structures of lactose permease (LacY), the sodium/galactose symporter (vSGLT), the vitamin B(12) transporter (BtuCD), and the arginine/agmatine antiporter (AdiC). Representative transmembrane (TM) segments were selected from these proteins based on their relative contact(s) with water, lipid, and/or within the protein, and were synthesized as Lys-tagged peptides. Each peptide was studied by circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy in water, and in the presence of the detergents sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS, anionic); n-dodecyl phosphatidylcholine (DPC, zwitterionic); n-dodecyl-β-d-maltoside (DDM, neutral); and n-octyl-β-d-glucoside (OG, neutral, varying acyl tail length). We found that (i) the secondary structures of the TM segments were statistically indistinguishable in the four detergents studied; and (ii) a strong correlation exists between the extent of helical structure of each individual TM segment in detergents with its helicity level as it exists in the full-length protein, indicating that helix adoption is fundamentally the same in both environments. The denaturing properties of so-called 'harsh' detergents may thus largely be due to their interactions with non-membranous regions of proteins. Given the consistency of structural features observed for each TM segment in a variety of micellar media, the overall results suggest that the structure likely corresponds to its relevant biological form in the intact protein in its native lipid bilayer environment.     

Regulation of urea synthesis by agmatine in the perfused liver: studies with 15N

Administration of arginine or a high-protein diet increases the hepatic content of N-acetylglutamate (NAG) and the synthesis of urea. However, the underlying mechanism is unknown. We have explored the hypothesis that agmatine, a metabolite of arginine, may stimulate NAG synthesis and, thereby, urea synthesis. We tested this hypothesis in a liver perfusion system to determine 1) the metabolism of l-[guanidino-15N2]arginine to either agmatine, nitric oxide (NO), and/or urea; 2) hepatic uptake of perfusate agmatine and its action on hepatic N metabolism; and 3) the role of arginine, agmatine, or NO in regulating NAG synthesis and ureagenesis in livers perfused with 15N-labeled glutamine and unlabeled ammonia or 15NH4Cl and unlabeled glutamine. Our principal findings are 1) [guanidino-15N2]agmatine is formed in the liver from perfusate l-[guanidino-15N2]arginine ( approximately 90% of hepatic agmatine is derived from perfusate arginine); 2) perfusions with agmatine significantly stimulated the synthesis of 15N-labeled NAG and [15N]urea from 15N-labeled ammonia or glutamine; and 3) the increased levels of hepatic agmatine are strongly correlated with increased levels and synthesis of 15N-labeled NAG and [15N]urea. These data suggest a possible therapeutic strategy encompassing the use of agmatine for the treatment of disturbed ureagenesis, whether secondary to inborn errors of metabolism or to liver disease.     

Mechanistic studies of agmatine deiminase from multiple bacterial species

One subfamily of guanidino group-modifying enzymes (GMEs) consists of the agmatine deiminases (AgDs). These enzymes catalyze the conversion of agmatine (decarboxylated arginine) to N-carbamoyl putrescine and ammonia. In plants, viruses, and bacteria, these enzymes are thought to be involved in energy production, biosynthesis of polyamines, and biofilm formation. In particular, we are interested in the role that this enzyme plays in pathogenic bacteria. Previously, we reported the initial kinetic characterization of the agmatine deiminase from Helicobacter pylori and described the synthesis and characterization the two most potent AgD inactivators. Herein, we have expanded our initial efforts to characterize the catalytic mechanisms of AgD from H. pylori as well as Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Through the use of pH rate profiles, pK(a) measurements of the active site cysteine, solvent isotope effects, and solvent viscosity effects, we have determined that the AgDs, like PADs 1 and 4, utilize a reverse protonation mechanism.     

胍丁胺对大鼠穹隆下器神经元电活动的影响

应用细胞外记录单位放电技术,在73个大鼠穹隆下器脑片上观察了胍丁胺(agmatine,Agm)对神经元电活动的影响。实验结果如下：(1)在28个穹隆下器脑片上灌流Agm(1．0μmol／L)2min,有24个单位(85．7％)自发放电频率明显降低,4个单位(14．3％)无明显变化：(2)预先用L-谷氨酸(0．3mmol／L)灌流,24个放电单位中有19个单位(79．2％)放电频率明显增加,表现为癫痫样放电,5个单位(20．8％)的变化不明显,在此基础上灌流Agm(1．0gmol／L)2min,有15个单位(78．9％)的癫痫样放电被抑制,另外4个单位(21．1％)无明显变化：(3)灌流L型钙通道激动剂Bay K-8644(0．1μmol／L),在12个神经元放电单位中有10个单位(83．3％)的放电频率明显增加,另外2个单位(16．7％)变化不明显,然后灌流Agm(1．0μmol／L)2min,有8个单位(80％)的放电频率被抑制,其余无明显变化;(4)9个单位在灌流一氧化氮合酶(NOS)抑制剂N^G-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester(L-NAME,50μmol／L)后,其中6个单位(66．7％)放电频率明显增加,另外3个单位(33．3％)放电频率变化不明显,在此基础上再给予Agm(1．0μmol)2min,增加的放电频率被抑制。上述结果提示：胍丁胺可抑制大鼠穹隆下器神经元自发放电以及由L-谷氨酸,Bay K-8644和L-NAME诱发的放电,这一效应可能与胍丁胺阻断了神经元的NMDA受体,从而减少钙离子内流有关。     

A tool for the qualitative comparison of membrane-embedded and detergent-solubilized membrane protein structures in projection

The calculation of projection structures (PSs) from Protein Data Bank (PDB)-coordinate files of membrane proteins is not well-established. Reports on such attempts exist but are rare. In addition, the different procedures are barely described and thus difficult if not impossible to reproduce. Here we present a simple, fast and well-documented method for the calculation and visualization of PSs from PDB-coordinate files of membrane proteins: the projection structure visualization (PSV)-method. The PSV-method was successfully validated using the PS of aquaporin-1 (AQP1) from 2D crystals and cryo-transmission electron microscopy, and the PDB-coordinate file of AQP1 determined from 3D crystals and X-ray crystallography. Besides AQP1, which is a relatively rigid protein, we also studied a flexible membrane transport protein, i.e. the l-arginine/agmatine antiporter AdiC. Comparison of PSs calculated from the existing PDB-coordinate files of substrate-free and l-arginine-bound AdiC indicated that conformational changes are detected in projection. Importantly, structural differences were found between the PSV-method calculated PSs of the detergent-solubilized AdiC proteins and the PS from cryo-TEM of membrane-embedded AdiC. These differences are particularly exciting since they may reflect a different conformation of AdiC induced by the lateral pressure in the lipid bilayer.     

An evaluation of intravenous, subcutaneous, and in vitro activity of new agmatine analogs of growth hormone-releasing hormone hGH-RH (1-29)NH2

The effects of new Agmatine (Agm) analogs of human growth hormone-releasing hormone (GH-RH) were compared to GH-RH (1-29)NH2 and to (D-Ala2)GH-RH(1-29)NH2 after intravenous (IV) and subcutaneous (SC) administration to pentobarbital-anesthetised male rats and in vitro using superfused rat pituitary cell system. After IV administration, the analogs: (D-MeAla2,Nle27)GH-RH(1-28)Agm(JG-75), (desamino-Tyr1,D-Ala2,Nle27)GH-RH(1-28)Agm(JG-77), (D-Ala2,Nle27)GH-RH(1-28)Agm(JG-73) and (D-Ala2)GH-RH(1-29)NH2 showed a potency 2.6-3.9 times greater than GH-RH(1-29)NH2 at 5 min and 1.6-2.7 times higher at 15 min. After SC administration these analogs were 30-74 times more potent than GH-RH(1-29)NH2. The ratio between the IV and SC GH-releasing activity of the analogs ranged from 2 to 5, while GH-RH(1-29)NH2 was about 50 times more active IV than SC. This indicates that 20-50% of the analogs can be absorbed from SC tissues, but only 2% of GH-RH(1-29)NH2. The in vitro activity of the agmatine analogs on GH release closely paralleled their IV potency and was 2.8-3.9 times greater than that of GH-RH(1-29)NH2. No significant difference in potency was found between (D-Ala2)GH-RH(1-29)NH2 and JG-75 after IV administration and in vitro, although JG-75 contained only 28 amino acids. We conclude that the reason for the large discrepancies between the previously reported activities of (D-Ala2)GH-RH(1-29)NH2 was simply due to the different ways of administration of this analog, SC vs IV, and not to species specificity. The replacement of Arg29 by Agmatine in (D-Ala2,Nle27)GH-RH(1-29)NH2 causes a 3 fold increase in SC potency, but the replacement of D-Ala2 with D-MeAla2 reduces the SC, but not the IV and in vitro activity in half.