Early life stress‐induced histone acetylations correlate with activation of the synaptic plasticity genes Arc and Egr1 in the mouse hippocampus

Early life stress (ELS) programs the developing organism and influences the development of brain and behavior. We tested the hypothesis that ELS‐induced histone acetylations might alter the expression of synaptic plasticity genes that are critically involved in the establishment of limbic brain circuits. Maternal separation (MS) from postnatal day 14–16 was applied as ELS and two immediate early genes underlying experience‐induced synaptic plasticity, Arc and early growth response 1 (Egr1) were analyzed. We show here that repeated ELS induces a rapid increase of Arc and Egr1 in the mouse hippocampus. Furthermore, immunoblotting revealed that these changes are paralleled by histone modifications, reflected by increased acetylation levels of H3 and H4. Most importantly, using native Chromatin immunoprecipitation quantitative PCR (nChIP‐qPCR), we show for the first time a correlation between elevated histone acetylation and increased Arc and Egr1 expression in response to ELS. These rapid epigenetic changes are paralleled by increases of dendritic complexity and spine number of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in ELS animals at weaning age. Our results are in line with our working hypothesis that ELS induces activation of synaptic plasticity genes, mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. These events are assumed to represent early steps in the adaption of neuronal networks to a stressful environment.     

Drebrin depletion alters neurotransmitter receptor levels in protein complexes,dendritic spine morphogenesis and memory‐related synaptic plasticity in the mouse hippocampus

Drebrin an actin‐bundling key regulator of dendritic spine genesis and morphology, has been recently proposed as a regulator of hippocampal glutamatergic activity which is critical for memory formation and maintenance. Here, we examined the effects of genetic deletion of drebrin on dendritic spine and on the level of complexes containing major brain receptors. To this end, homozygous and heterozygous drebrin knockout mice generated in our laboratory and related wild‐type control animals were studied. Level of protein complexes containing dopamine receptor D1/dopamine receptor D2, 5‐hydroxytryptamine receptor 1A (5‐HT1_AR), and 5‐hydroxytryptamine receptor 7 (5‐HT7R) were significantly reduced in hippocampus of drebrin knockout mice whereas no significant changes were detected for GluR1, 2, and 3 and NR1 as examined by native gel‐based immunoblotting. Drebrin depletion also altered dendritic spine formation, morphology, and reduced levels of dopamine receptor D1 in dendritic spines as evaluated using immunohistochemistry/confocal microscopy. Electrophysiological studies further showed significant reduction in memory‐related hippocampal synaptic plasticity upon drebrin depletion. These findings provide unprecedented experimental support for a role of drebrin in the regulation of memory‐related synaptic plasticity and neurotransmitter receptor signaling, offer relevant information regarding the interpretation of previous studies and help in the design of future studies on dendritic spines.

     

The role of myosin V in exocytosis and synaptic plasticity

In neuroscience, myosin V motor proteins have attracted attention since they are highly expressed in brain, and absence of myosin Va in man leads to a severe neurological disease called Griscelli syndrome. While in some cells myosin V is described to act as a vesicle transport motor, an additional role in exocytosis has emerged recently. In neurons, myosin V has been linked to exocytosis of secretory vesicles and recycling endosomes. Through these functions, it is implied in regulating important brain functions including the release of neuropeptides by exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles and the insertion of neurotransmitter receptors into post-synaptic membranes. This review focuses on the role of myosin V in (i) axonal transport and stimulated exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles to regulate the secretion of neuroactive substances, (ii) tethering of the endoplasmic reticulum at cerebellar synapses to permit long-term depression, (iii) recycling of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) receptors at hippocampal synapses during long-term potentiation, and (iv) recycling of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Myosin V is thus discussed as an important modulator of synaptic plasticity.     

SRC3 acetylates calmodulin in the mouse brain to regulate synaptic plasticity and fear learning

Protein acetylation is a reversible posttranslational modification, which is regulated by lysine acetyltransferase (KAT) and lysine deacetyltransferase (KDAC). Although protein acetylation has been shown to regulate synaptic plasticity, this was mainly for histone protein acetylation. The function and regulation of nonhistone protein acetylation in synaptic plasticity and learning remain largely unknown. Calmodulin (CaM), a ubiquitous Ca²⁺ sensor, plays critical roles in synaptic plasticity such as long-term potentiation (LTP). During LTP induction, activation of NMDA receptor triggers Ca²⁺ influx, and the Ca²⁺ binds with CaM and activates calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIα (CaMKIIα). In our previous study, we demonstrated that acetylation of CaM was important for synaptic plasticity and fear learning in mice. However, the KAT responsible for CaM acetylation is currently unknown. Here, following an HEK293 cell-based screen of candidate KATs, steroid receptor coactivator 3 (SRC3) is identified as the most active KAT for CaM. We further demonstrate that SRC3 interacts with and acetylates CaM in a Ca²⁺ and NMDA receptor-dependent manner. We also show that pharmacological inhibition or genetic downregulation of SRC3 impairs CaM acetylation, synaptic plasticity, and contextual fear learning in mice. Moreover, the effects of SRC3 inhibition on synaptic plasticity and fear learning could be rescued by 3KQ-CaM, a mutant form of CaM, which mimics acetylation. Together, these observations demonstrate that SRC3 acetylates CaM and regulates synaptic plasticity and learning in mice.     

Novel contribution of cell surface and intracellular M1‐muscarinic acetylcholine receptors to synaptic plasticity in hippocampus

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are well known to transmit extracellular cholinergic signals into the cytoplasm from their position on the cell surface. However, we show here that M1‐mAChRs are also highly expressed on intracellular membranes in neurons of the telencephalon and activate signaling cascades distinct from those of cell surface receptors, contributing uniquely to synaptic plasticity. Radioligand‐binding experiments with cell‐permeable and ‐impermeable ligands and immunohistochemical observations revealed intracellular and surface distributions of M1‐mAChRs in the hippocampus and cortex of rats, mice, and humans, in contrast to the selective occurrence on the cell surface in other tissues. All intracellular muscarinic‐binding sites were abolished in M1‐mAChR‐gene‐knockout mice. Activation of cell surface M1‐mAChRs in rat hippocampal neurons evoked phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and network oscillations at theta rhythm, and transiently enhanced long‐term potentiation. On the other hand, activation of intracellular M1‐mAChRs phosphorylated extracellular‐regulated kinase 1/2 and gradually enhanced long‐term potentiation. Our data thus demonstrate that M1‐mAChRs function at both surface and intracellular sites in telencephalon neurons including the hippocampus, suggesting a new mode of cholinergic transmission in the central nervous system.     

Mechanisms of hyperthermia-induced depression of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the immature rat hippocampus

Clinical observations and experimental studies have shown that hyperthermia can provoke febrile seizures, which are the most common type of pathological brain activity in children. We previously demonstrated that hyperthermia produced a depression of GABAergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus of immature rats in vitro. To investigate the possible mechanisms through which hyperthermia may modulate GABAergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus, whole-cell voltage clamp recordings were performed on CA1 pyramidal neurons in the immature rat brain slices. We found that hyperthermia (38.4-40 degrees C) when compared with baseline temperature of 32 degrees C reduced the frequency of both spontaneous inhibitory post-synaptic currents (sIPSCs) and miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs). Also, hyperthermia decreased the amplitudes of mIPSCs and reduced the mIPSC decay time constants and charge transfer. Non-stationary noise analysis of mIPSCs suggested that the number of open post-synaptic receptors but not single channel conductance was reduced during hyperthermia. Activation of adenylyl cyclase with forskolin prevented, whereas protein kinase A inhibitor N-(2-[p-bromocinnamylamino]ethyl)-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide potentiated, the hyperthermia (40 degrees C)-induced depression of evoked IPSCs (evIPSCs). But protein kinase C activator phorbol 12, 13-dibutyrate (PDBu) did not significantly affect this depression of evIPSCs induced by hyperthermia. Furthermore, hyperthermia-induced depression of evIPSCs was attenuated by 4-aminopyridine, but not by BaCl(2). These results suggest that hyperthermia reduces GABA release from pre-synaptic terminals, in part by blocking the adenylyl cyclase-protein kinase A signaling pathway and activating pre-synaptic 4-aminopyridine-sensitive K(+) channels. Also, the changes in amplitude and decay time constant of the mIPSCs may suggest that hyperthermia also decreases post-synaptic GABA(A) receptor function.     

Cell‐specific changes in expression of mRNAs encoding splice variants of Aplysia cell adhesion molecule accompany long‐term synaptic plasticity

Aplysia neurons express several splice variants of apCAM, a member of the Ig superfamily of cell adhesion molecules. The major transmembrane isoform is endocytosed in sensory neurons (SNs) during the early phases of long‐term facilitation (LTF) of SN synapses evoked by serotonin (5‐HT) or in the motor neuron L7 during the early phases of long‐term depression (LTD) of SN synapses evoked by Phe‐Met‐Arg‐Phe‐amide (FMRFa). We used single cell RT‐PCR to evaluate whether expression of mRNAs encoding for different apCAM isoforms in SNs and L7 is regulated during LTF produced by 5‐HT, and LTD produced by FMRFa. Single SNs and L7s express mRNAs encoding for all major isoforms, but the proportion of each isoform expressed differs for the two cells. SN expresses more mRNA encoding for GPI‐linked isoforms, while L7 expresses more mRNA encoding for the major transmembrane isoform. The neuromodulators produced significant changes in the proportional levels of mRNAs encoding for specific apCAM isoforms during the first 4 h after treatments without affecting overall levels of apCAM mRNA. 5‐HT evoked changes that exaggerated cell‐specific differences in isoform expression. FMRFa evoked changes that reduced cell‐specific differences in isoform expression. The effects of the neuromodulators on apCAM mRNA expression were not detected when cells were cultured alone or when SNs were cocultured with another motor cell that failed to induce synapse formation (L11). The results suggest that rapid cell‐specific regulation of splice variant expression may contribute to different forms of long‐term synaptic plasticity. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 45: 152–161, 2000     

Molecular cloning and expression analysis of heat-shock protein 70 in orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides following heat shock and Vibrio alginolyticus challenge

In this study, the complementary (c)DNA encoding heat-shock protein 70 (Hsp70) of orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides (OsgHsp70) was cloned. OsgHsp70 was 2206 bp and encoded 652 amino acids with predicted molecular mass of 70·89 kDa and theoretical isoelectric point of 5·48. Three Hsp70 family signatures, bipartite nuclear localization signal sequence (NLS) and cytoplasmic characteristic motif (EEVD) were observed in the OsgHsp70, which shared high similarity in amino-acid sequences with the Hsp70 gene of other vertebrates. The results indicated that the OsgHsp70 is a member of the heat-shock protein 70 family. The Hsp70 messenger (m)RNA expressions were quantified by real-time PCR following heat shock, bacterial infection and immunization with formalin-killed Vibrio alginolyticus, a kind of bacterial pathogen that causes septicaemia. Hsp70 mRNA expression in gill, kidney, spleen, thymus gland, muscle and total-blood samples increased at first and then decreased gradually following heat shock. A similar time-dependent pattern was observed following V. alginolyticus pathogen challenge, in which Hsp70 mRNA expression peaked at 24 h after live bacterial infection and 3 days after dead bacterial vaccination. The results indicated that the Hsp70 gene was inducible and involved in the fish immune response.     

Ischemia induces short- and long-term remodeling of synaptic activity in the hippocampus

One of the most vulnerable areas to ischemia or hypoglycemia is CA1 hippocampal region due to pyramidal neurons death. Glutamate receptors are involved together with protein-kinase C and nitric oxide synthase. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is generated in anoxic or hypoglycemic conditions via activation of NMDA while inhibition of these receptors atenuates this response. Protein-kinase C and nitric oxide synthase are involved in anoxic LTP mechanism. Postischemic neurons are hyperexcitable in CA3 area while CA1 pyramidal neurons degenerate and dissapear. Changes of glutamate receptors triggered by ischemia and hypoglycemia are discussed in this review.     

Molecular characterization,expression pattern and ligand‐binding properties of the pheromone‐binding protein gene from Cyrtotrachelus buqueti

Pheromone‐binding proteins (PBPs) play important roles in the information exchange between insect sexes, specifically in the process of transporting fat‐soluble odour molecules from the external environment to olfactory receptors through the olfactory sensillum lymph. The PBP functions in this process may explain the sex pheromone identification mechanism used by insects, laying a theoretical foundation for the prevention and control of pests by interfering with olfactory recognition. In the present study, a PBP gene of Cyrtotrachelus buqueti (GenBank accession number: KU845733) is cloned for prokaryotic expression. Using N‐phenyl‐1‐naphthylamine as the fluorescent probe in a competitive binding assay, the ability of CbuqPBP1 to bind 12 sex pheromone analogues and three volatiles of Neosinocalamus affinis shoots is examined. Of the 12 C. buqueti sex pheromone analogues, dibutyl phthalate gives the greatest displacement (inhibitory constant value of 11.1 μm ), whereas the other sex pheromone components show much smaller displacements. Consistent with other PBPs, the three plant volatiles (linalool, benzaldehyde and indole) show only a limited displacement of CbuqPBP1. However, the binding abilities of 1 : 1 ratios of each of the three plant volatiles with dibutyl phthalate show increases of 62.3%, 65.1% and 51.7% over the binding abilities of the three plant volatiles alone. CbuqPBP1 has dual roles in the processes of sensing sex pheromones and plant volatiles.     

耐力运动对增龄大鼠脑皮层突触可塑性的影响及相关调控机制*

目的:探讨规律性耐力运动对脑皮层增龄性老化适应性的作用与机制。方法:将三个不同年龄段的健康SPF级雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠分为3月龄 (青年,n=20)、13月龄 (中年,n=24)和23月龄 (老年,n=24)组,每组又随机分为静息组和运动组;静息组三组静息,运动组三组实施10周递增负荷规律的中等强度耐力运动:运动方式为跑台运动(坡度0),运动强度从最大摄氧量(V·O2max) 60%～65%逐渐递增到70%～75%,运动时间为10周;取大鼠脑皮层,HE染色测试大鼠脑皮层增龄性形态学变化,检测BDNF和SOD的蛋白表达及突触素-1(SYN1)和CaMK IIα/AMPKα1/ mTOR通路等相关基因。结果:静息各组大鼠的脑皮层结构呈现年龄增龄性衰老变化,脑皮层SOD表达呈增龄性下降趋势,BDNF表达变化呈增龄性上升趋势,SYN1和CaMK IIα表达水平随增龄性趋势变化不大,AMPKα1和SirT2以及 IP3R、AKT1、mTOR mRNA表达水平随年龄变化呈现中年略上升而老年下降趋势;与静息各组大鼠相比,运动各组大鼠脑皮层神经细胞核排列紧密有序,显微镜下观察细胞核的数量明显增加,运动促进大鼠脑皮层SOD、BDNF和突触素SYN1表达水平增加,其中老年大鼠SOD、BDNF表达水平显著上调(P＜0.01),青年和老年大鼠SYN1表达水平显著上调(P＜0.05),运动上调中年和老年大鼠脑皮层CaMK IIα表达水平上调(P＜0.01),而对青年大鼠CaMK IIα表达水平却是下调(P＜0.01),运动可上调青年大鼠脑皮层的AMPKα1表达水平(P＜0.05),而对中年和老年大鼠AMPKα1的影响不显著,运动均可上调各年龄大鼠脑皮层的SirT2表达水平(P＜0.05),运动上调各年龄大鼠脑皮层的IP3R/AKT1/ mTOR表达水平,其中青年IP3R显著上调(P＜0.01),青年和中年mTOR显著上调(P＜0.01),老年mTOR也显著上调(P＜0.05)。结论:耐力运动通过上调BDNF的表达水平,调控CaMK IIα信号、激活AMPK信号通路和IP3R/AKT1/mTOR信号通路,改善脑皮层的突触可塑性。