Participation of Chloroplasts in Plant Apoptosis

Mitochondria are known to participate in the initiation of programmed cell death (PCD) in animals and in plants. The role of chloroplasts in PCD is still unknown. We describe a new system to study PCD in plants; namely, leaf epidermal peels. The peel represents a monolayer consisting of cells of two types: phototrophic (guard cells) and chemotrophic (epidermal cells). The peels from pea (Pisum sativum L.) leaves were treated by cyanide as an inducer of PCD. We found an apoptosis-enhancing effect of illumination on chloroplast-containing guard cells, but not on chloroplastless epidermal cells. Antioxidants and anaerobiosis prevented the CN^–-induced apoptosis of cells of both types in the dark and in the light. On the other hand, methyl viologen and menadione known as ROS-generating reagents as well as the Hill reaction electron acceptors (BQ, DAD, TMPD, or DPIP) that are not oxidized spontaneously by O₂ were shown to prevent the CN^–-induced nucleus destruction in guard cells. Apoptosis of epidermal cells was potentiated by these reagents, and they had no influence on the CN^– effect. The light-dependent activation of CN^–-induced apoptosis of guard cells was suppressed by DCMU, stigmatellin or DNP-INT, by a protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine as well as by cysteine and serine protease inhibitors. The above data suggest that apoptosis of guard cells is initiated upon a combined action of two factors, i.e., ROS and reduced plastoquinone of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain. As to reduction of ubiquinone in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, it seems to be antiapoptotic for the guard cell.     

Participation of Catecholamines and Nitric Oxide in Regulation of Apoptosis in Nonapeptidergic Neurons of the Rat Hypothalamus

The goal of this work was to study effects of blockade of catecholamine (CA) synthesis on activation of neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) and to elucidate the role of NO in activation of pro- and anti-apoptotic signal proteins in nonapeptidergic neurons of supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei of hypothalamus. The experiment was carried out on adult male Wistar rats. Dehydration for 5 days was used as an apoptosis-activating factor in vasopressinergic neurosecretory cells of SON and PVN of hypothalamus in adult rats. To find out the role of CA, a part of the animals subjected to dehydration were administered intraperitoneally, for the last 3 consecutive experimental days, with an inhibitor of CA synthesis, -methyl-p-tyrosine (-MT) at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight. A marker of the programmed cell death initiation, pro-apoptotic protein caspase-9, as well as anti-apoptotic protein bcl-2 and nNOS, were revealed using an immunohistochemical technique. Evaluation of immunopositive substance (nNOS, caspase-9, and bcl-2) in neurosecretory cells of SON and PVN were carried out quantitatively by determination of optical density of the stained material in perikarya, using a computerized digital television image analyzer and software PhotoM. On comparing the nNOS amount with the level of pro- and anti-apoptotic protein expression, we have come to the conclusion that a decrease of the brain CA level increases the nNOS and caspase-9 expression. This allows suggesting that an increased level of NO mediates activation of the pro-apoptotic protein caspase-9 and initiates apoptosis in neurons of SON and PVN of hypothalamus. The lack of neuronal loss in SON under conditions of decrease CA synthesis on the background of dehydration might be due to increased expression of the anti-apoptotic protein bcl-2, whose increased elevated level seems to prevent the further rise of the caspase-9 level and, thereby, protects cells from death. An increased level of bcl-2 in neurons of PVN correlated with high amounts of nNOS and caspase-9, but there also was observed no cell loss. It is suggested that suppression of apoptosis in PVN is due either to the bcl-2 effects at later stages of apoptosis, or to other mechanisms that inhibit active caspases.     

细胞凋亡中的钙离子调控

凋亡是细胞的一种生理性、主动性的自杀行为,它使机体能够有效清除多余或病态的细胞。作为细胞内普遍存在的第二信使,Ca2 在信号转导过程中发挥重要作用。它能够将细胞感受的刺激转化为其在不同细胞组分间的分布差异及自身浓度的振荡,这种在细胞内和细胞间的波动协调了细胞生命活动的各个方面。以往的研究认为细胞内Ca2 浓度的升高是凋亡进行到后期的结果,而最近的研究发现Ca2 也可以在凋亡通路的各个层次,通过不同的方式精细调控凋亡的进程,这构成了凋亡中复杂的钙调控网络。现对钙离子和线粒体凋亡途径中分子间的复杂联系以及钙调控细胞凋亡研究的最新进展进行综述。     

Negative Regulation of Hepatitis C Virus Specific Immunity Is Highly Heterogeneous and Modulated by Pegylated Interferon-Alpha/Ribavirin Therapy

Specific inhibitory mechanisms suppress the T-cell response against the hepatitis C virus (HCV) in chronically infected patients. However, the relative importance of suppression by IL-10, TGF-β and regulatory T-cells and the impact of pegylated interferon-alpha and ribavirin (PegIFN-α/ribavirin) therapy on these inhibitory mechanisms are still unclear. We revealed that coregulation of the HCV-specific T-cell responses in blood of 43 chronic HCV patients showed a highly heterogeneous pattern before, during and after PegIFN-α/ribavirin. Prior to treatment, IL-10 mediated suppression of HCV-specific IFN-γ production in therapy-naive chronic HCV patients was associated with higher HCV-RNA loads, which suggests that protective antiviral immunity is controlled by IL-10. In addition, as a consequence of PegIFN-α/ribavirin therapy, negative regulation of especially HCV-specific IFN-γ production by TGF-β and IL-10 changed dramatically. Our findings emphasize the importance of negative regulation for the dysfunctional HCV-specific immunity, which should be considered in the design of future immunomodulatory therapies.     

凋亡诱导因子(AIF)对细胞凋亡的调控

凋亡诱导因子（apoptosis-inducing factor,AIF）是一种具有凋亡诱导活性的蛋白质,定位于线粒体的膜间隙.细胞受到凋亡刺激时,AIF分子从线粒体释放到胞质,然后再易位到核,与染色体DNA结合,使染色体核周边凝集和DNA断裂成约50kb的大片段.AIF具有凋亡诱导活性和氧化还原酶活性,但二者的作用是脱偶联的.AIF是第一个被鉴定出可以不依赖于胱天蛋白酶（caspase）信号通路而直接介导细胞发生凋亡的分子,但后来也有的报道认为AIF的凋亡活性需依赖于胱天蛋白酶.     

Regulation of Neutrophil Apoptosis by Sodium Butyrate

Neutrophils have a very short half life because they constitutively undergo apoptosis. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) can delay apoptosis, but this agent also primes functions such as the respiratory burst and receptor upregulation. Here, we show that sodium butyrate, which has been shown to increase gene expression and differentiation in a variety of cell types, is more effective than GM-CSF in delaying neutrophil apoptosis. Thus, sodium butyrate preserves cell morphology and function, and butyrate-treated cells express express high levels of CD16 after overnight culture. However, neither GM-CSF nor sodium butyrate appear to affect mRNA levels for CD16.     

Participation of Pyridinecarboxylic Acids in Endocellular Regulation of Reproduction in Ciliates

A comparative study has been performed of effects of a natural chelator of transition metals, picolinic acid (PA) and of its structural analogues: nicotinic (NA), quinaldinic (QA), 2,6- and 3,4-pyridinedicarboxylic (2,6-PDCA, 3,4-PDCA) acids, as well as of synthetic chelators: EDTA and monoethanolaminediacetic acid (MEADAA), on dynamics of proliferation and on glutathione S-transferase (GT) activity in ciliates Tetrahymena pyriformis and Paramecium caudatum. It is revealed that the in vivo cytostatic effect of PA and its complex-forming analogues (QA, 2,6-PDCA) is higher, than of synthetic chelators (EDTA and MEADAA) that have a much higher complex-forming activity. It is shown that PA and its complex-forming analogues (QA and 2,6-PDCA) at a concentration of 1 mM inhibit essentially proliferation in the infusorian cultures. It is shown that the cells at logarithmic growth phase are more sensitive to inhibitory action of all tested compounds, than the cells at stationary phase. It is found that the cytostatic PA effect is associated with disturbance not of DNA replication, but of processes of preparation for the cell division at G₂ and D phases of the cell cycle. It is established that the block of cell division both in Tetrahymena pyriformis, and in Paramecium caudatum can be eliminated by addition of 5 mM NADPH to the incubation medium. It is revealed, that PA oppresses essentially the glutathione S-transferase activity in the infusoria of both species. A suggestion is put forward that the cytostatic effect of PA and its complex-forming analogues is due not only to the transition metal chelation and competitive involvement in NAD metabolism, but also to its immediate participation in transmission of proliferative signal, inhibition of nuclear division, and impairment of the glutathione-dependent protective system of cells.     

热休克蛋白对细胞凋亡的调控作用

热休克蛋白属于细胞内分子伴侣蛋白,除涉及细胞内一些蛋白质分子构象和稳定性的调节之外,热休克蛋白对细胞应激、代谢、增殖以及凋亡等生理过程均具有重要的调控作用。研究表明热休克蛋白对细胞凋亡的调控机制是复杂的,可直接作用于与凋亡相关的蛋白质,也可以通过影响细胞信号传递而间接影响凋亡的发生。由于热休克蛋白对细胞凋亡的调控机制大多依赖于其分子伴侣功能,阻断热休克蛋白的伴侣功能已经成为研究药物诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的重要靶点。     

与CD95相关的细胞凋亡和免疫调节

细胞凋亡是一个十分复杂的过程,就目前研究结果来看,CD95系统的调控起到了很重要的作用。它与免疫杀伤、肿瘤免疫和自身免疫疾病密切相关。CD95系统不仅能够维持免疫系统的自身稳定,同时也能发挥免疫反应的作用。在特异性的细胞毒效应作用中,CD95通路是细胞毒性T淋巴细胞（CTL）杀伤靶细胞的一种方式;CD95通路在肿瘤中的失效使之逃避免疫监视和削弱免疫反应;活化的T细胞和B细胞增殖后所出现的细胞凋亡,主要是通过CD95／CD95L诱导的凋亡途径产生。一旦CD95－CD95L体系功能紊乱,就会造成严重的自身免疫疾病。     

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体与细胞凋亡调控

利用核受体与配体作用促进癌细胞分化和凋亡是治疗癌症的新方向。过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体(PPARs)是一类参与多种生物学效应的核受体,目前已知有3种亚型：α、β和γ。PPARs除和脂质代谢、氧化还原状态、炎症、心血管疾病、糖尿病、肥胖等一系列生理过程密切相关外,PPARs的激活还对细胞的生长、分化甚至凋亡有重要的影响,尤其是PPARγ的激活在多种恶性肿瘤细胞中可促进细胞凋亡、抑制肿瘤生长。然而由于PPARs的表达具有极大的物种、组织特异性,使预临床实验的推广应用变得十分复杂。现仅就PPARs与细胞凋亡方面的最新研究进展及其在癌症预临床中的研究状况进行综述。     

Liver-Targeting of Interferon-Alpha with Tissue-Specific Domain Antibodies

Interferon alpha (IFNα) is used for the treatment of hepatitis C infection and whilst efficacious it is associated with multiple adverse events including reduced leukocyte, erythrocyte, and platelet counts, fatigue, and depression. These events are most likely caused by systemic exposure to interferon. We therefore hypothesise that targeting the therapeutic directly to the intended site of action in the liver would reduce exposure in blood and peripheral tissue and hence improve the safety and tolerability of IFNα therapy. We genetically fused IFN to a domain antibody (dAb) specific to a hepatocyte restricted antigen, asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR). Our results show that the murine IFNα2 homolog (mIFNα2) fused to an ASGPR specific dAb, termed DOM26h-196-61, could be expressed in mammalian tissue culture systems and retains the desirable biophysical properties and activity of both fusion partners when measured in vitro. Furthermore a clear increase in in vivo targeting of the liver by mIFNα2-ASGPR dAb fusion protein, compared to that observed with either unfused mIFNα2 or mIFNα2 fused to an isotype control dAb V_HD2 (which does not bind ASGPR) was demonstrated using microSPECT imaging. We suggest that these findings may be applicable in the development of a liver-targeted human IFN molecule with improved safety and patient compliance in comparison to the current standard of care, which could ultimately be used as a treatment for human hepatitis virus infections.     

Differential Regulation of Germline Apoptosis in Response to Meiotic Checkpoint Activation

In Caenorhabditis elegans, germline apoptosis is promoted by egl-1 and ced-13 in response to meiotic checkpoint activation. We report that the requirement for these two factors depends on which checkpoints are active. We also identify a regulatory region of egl-1 required to inhibit germline apoptosis in response to DNA damage incurred during meiotic recombination.     

细胞凋亡中p53转录依赖与非依赖性调控

p53介导由胞内压力诱导的细胞凋亡等多种细胞应答.传统上认为, p53主要在细胞核内作为转录因子调控多种促凋亡靶基因的表达, 从而发挥其促凋亡功能.而最新的研究表明, p53也能直接在细胞质中发挥其促凋亡作用, 并且该过程不依赖于其核内的转录活性.此外, 在特定的刺激下, p53的转录依赖性(细胞核内)与转录非依赖性(细胞质内)促凋亡作用存在着偶联和协同机制, 从而有效的决定细胞在生存与死亡间进行选择.现对近年来关于细胞凋亡中p53转录依赖性和转录非依赖性调控及它们之间的偶联机制的研究进行综述.     

Effect of Interferon-Alpha on Mouse Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical System in Aging

The state of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system (HPAS) in aged mice was compared with that in young mice after administration of interferon-alpha (IA). In the aged mice, IA produced an increase of morpho-functional activity of neurosecretory cells (NSC) of hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. In the young mice, no effects of IA on neuroendocrine centers (paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei) were found, but an increase of the number of apoptotic cells in the adrenal cortex was revealed. The differences in the IA effects can be due to age-related changes revealed in the HPAS. They consist in intact old animals in a decrease of functional activity of hypothalamic centers as a result of loss of NSC (an increase of apoptosis level) with a simultaneous rise of activity of adrenal cortex, which seems to have a compensatory character. Thus, in aging, first of all, function of the central part of the HPAS decreases, which subsequently might lead to age-related changes in the peripheral link of the endocrine system. The results obtained indicate that the effect of IA on the HPAS depends on the stage of ontogenesis.     

Involvement of Viral MicroRNA in the Regulation of Antiviral Apoptosis in Shrimp

Viruses, in particular DNA viruses, generate microRNAs (miRNAs) to control the expression of host and viral genes. Due to their essential roles in virus-host interactions, viral miRNAs have attracted extensive investigations in recent years. To date, however, most studies on viral miRNAs have been conducted in cell lines. In this study, the viral miRNAs from white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) were characterized in shrimp in vivo. On the basis of our previous study and small RNA sequencing in this study, a total of 89 putative WSSV miRNAs were identified. As revealed by miRNA microarray analysis and Northern blotting, the expression of viral miRNAs was tissue specific in vivo. The results indicated that the viral miRNA WSSV-miR-N24 could target the shrimp caspase 8 gene, and this miRNA further repressed the apoptosis of shrimp hemocytes in vivo. As a result, the number of WSSV copies in shrimp in vivo was significantly increased compared with the control level (WSSV only). Therefore, our study presents the first report on the in vivo molecular events of viral miRNA in antiviral apoptosis.     

A Computational Model of Inhibition of HIV-1 by Interferon-Alpha

Type 1 interferons such as interferon-alpha (IFNα) inhibit replication of Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) by upregulating the expression of genes that interfere with specific steps in the viral life cycle. This pathway thus represents a potential target for immune-based therapies that can alter the dynamics of host-virus interactions to benefit the host. To obtain a deeper mechanistic understanding of how IFNα impacts spreading HIV-1 infection, we modeled the interaction of HIV-1 with CD4 T cells and IFNα as a dynamical system. This model was then tested using experimental data from a cell culture model of spreading HIV-1 infection. We found that a model in which IFNα induces reversible cellular states that block both early and late stages of HIV-1 infection, combined with a saturating rate of conversion to these states, was able to successfully fit the experimental dataset. Sensitivity analysis showed that the potency of inhibition by IFNα was particularly dependent on specific network parameters and rate constants. This model will be useful for designing new therapies targeting the IFNα network in HIV-1-infected individuals, as well as potentially serving as a template for understanding the interaction of IFNα with other viruses.     

Redox Regulation of Apoptosis before and after Cytochrome C Release

Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is one of the most studied areas of modern biology. Apoptosis is a genetically regulated process, which plays an essential role in the development and homeostasis of higher organisms. Mitochondria, known to play a central role in regulating cellular metabolism, was found to be critical for regulating apoptosis induced under both physiological and pathological conditions. Mitochondria are a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) but they can also serve as its target during the apoptosis process. Release of apoptogenic factors from mitochondria, the best known of which is cytochrome c, leads to assembly of a large apoptosis-inducing complex called the apoptosome. Cysteine proteases (called caspases) are recruited to this complex and, following their activation by proteolytic cleavage, activate other caspases, which in turn target for specific cleavage a large number of cellular proteins. The redox regulation of apoptosis during and after cytochrome c release is an area of intense investigation. This review summarizes what is known about the biological role of ROS and its targets in apoptosis with an emphasis on its intricate connections to mitochondria and the basic components of cell death.     

Participation of Phytohormones in the Stomatal Regulation of Gas Exchange During Water Stress

Almost all processes in the life of a plant are directly or indirectly affected by both stresses and phytohormones. Nevertheless, apart from abscisic acid, the role of phytohormones in plant response to water stress is far from being fully elucidated. This review tries to answer the question whether interactions between abscisic acid and some other phytohormones might be important in the regulation of stomatal opening during water stress and subsequent rehydration. Firstly, it describes the changes in the contents of individual endogenous phytohormones during water stress. Then, it deals with the effects of applied phytohormones on stomatal opening, and on transpiration and photosynthetic rates in different plants species. Finally, it focuses on the alleviation or stimulation of absicic acid-induced stomatal closure by application of other phytohormones. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.