Single motor unit and fiber action potentials during fatigue

Muscle fatigue is defined as a loss of tension development during constant stimulation. Although the relationship is not well documented, muscle fatigue has been inferred from electromyogram (EMG) signals. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the amplitude and duration of single motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) and the loss of tension development (fatigue) in the medial gastrocnemius muscles of cats. Single motor units were fatigued by continuous stimulation at 10 or 80 Hz or with trains of 40-Hz stimuli. When motor units were stimulated at 10 Hz and with trains at 40 Hz (low frequency), tension declined and remained depressed during recovery. The changes in the MUAP correlated poorly with changes in tension. During and after stimulation at 80 Hz (high frequency), changes in the amplitude and duration of MUAPs correlated highly with changes in tension development. Since the EMG signal is dependent on a summation and cancellation of individual MUAPs, the EMG provides a reasonable estimate of high-frequency fatigue but an unreliable measure of low-frequency fatigue.     

A method of selective derivation of the action potentials of human motor units through surface electrodes

The results of the development of methods for selective recording of the potentials of motor units of human arm, leg, and head skeletal muscles through surface electrodes are described.     

Amplitude cancellation reduces the size of motor unit potentials averaged from the surface EMG.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the influence of selected physiological parameters on amplitude cancellation in the simulated surface electromyogram (EMG) and the consequences for spike-triggered averages of motor unit potentials derived from the interference and rectified EMG signals. The surface EMG was simulated from prescribed recruitment and rate coding characteristics of a motor unit population. The potentials of the motor units were detected on the skin over a hand muscle with a bipolar electrode configuration. Averages derived from the EMG signal were generated using the discharge times for each of the 24 motor units with lowest recruitment thresholds from a population of 120 across three conditions: 1) excitation level; 2) motor unit conduction velocity; and 3) motor unit synchronization. The area of the surface-detected potential was compared with potentials averaged from the interference, rectified, and no-cancellation EMGs. The no-cancellation EMG comprised motor unit potentials that were rectified before they were summed, thereby preventing cancellation between the opposite phases of the potentials. The percent decrease in area of potentials extracted from the rectified EMG was linearly related to the amount of amplitude cancellation in the interference EMG signal, with the amount of cancellation influenced by variation in excitation level and motor unit conduction velocity. Motor unit synchronization increased potentials derived from both the rectified and interference EMG signals, although cancellation limited the increase in area for both potentials. These findings document the influence of amplitude cancellation on motor unit potentials averaged from the surface EMG and the consequences for using the procedure to characterize motor unit properties.     

Sex differences in the detection of motor unit action potentials identified using high-density surface electromyography

Sex-related disparities in force production of humans have been widely observed. Previous literature has attributed differences in peripheral traits, such as muscle size, to explain these disparities. However, less is known about potential sex-related differences in central neuromuscular traits and many comparable studies, not exploring sex-related differences, exhibit a selection-bias in the recruitment of subjects making the generalization of their findings difficult. Utilizing high-density electromyography arrays and motor unit (MU) decomposition, the aim of the current study is to compare MU yield and discharge properties of the tibialis anterior between male and female humans. Twenty-four subjects (10 females) performed two submaximal (20%) isometric dorsiflexion contractions. On average, males yielded nearly twice the amount of MUs as females. Further, females had significantly higher MU discharge rate, lower MU action potential amplitude, and lower MU action potential frequency content than males despite similar levels of torque and MU discharge variability. These findings suggest differences in central neuromuscular control of force production between sexes; however, it is unclear how lower yield counts affect the accuracy of these results.     

Generative topographic mapping applied to clustering and visualization of motor unit action potentials

The identification and visualization of clusters formed by motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) is an essential step in investigations seeking to explain the control of the neuromuscular system. This work introduces the generative topographic mapping (GTM), a novel machine learning tool, for clustering of MUAPs, and also it extends the GTM technique to provide a way of visualizing MUAPs. The performance of GTM was compared to that of three other clustering methods: the self-organizing map (SOM), a Gaussian mixture model (GMM), and the neural-gas network (NGN). The results, based on the study of experimental MUAPs, showed that the rate of success of both GTM and SOM outperformed that of GMM and NGN, and also that GTM may in practice be used as a principled alternative to the SOM in the study of MUAPs. A visualization tool, which we called GTM grid, was devised for visualization of MUAPs lying in a high-dimensional space. The visualization provided by the GTM grid was compared to that obtained from principal component analysis (PCA).     

Branched EMG electrodes for stable and selective recording of single motor unit potentials in humans.

Branched surface EMG electrodes are bipolar electrodes with the hot signal pole referenced to two or more short-circuited leading-off surfaces. This technique provides stable recording of single motor unit potentials during real movements, up to maximal muscle contractions. The selective characteristic of branched electrodes is based on the same principles as the double differential detection system and spatial filtering technique proposed later. Equi-weight calculations to assess the selectivity of different electrode types and their position are used. The main advantage of branched electrodes, especially high stability, is achieved by the wire electrode version. The design, manufacture, implementation, and application of wire electrodes are discussed in detail. During recording of motor unit potentials, electrodes are positioned subcutaneously over the muscle fascia. This positioning maximizes electrode stability. Appropriate orientation of the electrode relative to the muscle architecture ensures adequate selectivity for single motor unit recordings. Branched electrodes require ordinary EMG equipment (two or even one amplifier).     

Comparative analysis of motor unit action potentials of the medial gastrocnemius muscle in cats and rats

Properties of motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) were compared for medial gastrocnemius (MG) motor units (MUs) in cats and rats. The experiments on functionally isolated MUs were performed under general anaesthesia, under comparable conditions (surgery, stimulating protocol and recording methods) for both species investigated. The proportions of motor units and contractile properties of the sample used in the study were consistent with previous studies performed on the MG muscle in both animal species, so comparisons of action potentials of individual types of MUs were acknowledged as fully reliable. The most prominent differences concerning MUAPs were observed in total duration and peak-to-peak times which for all MU types were about twice longer in cat MUs, in comparison to the rat MUs. The considerable disproportions were observed between the MUAP amplitudes of FF (fast fatigable), FR (fast resistant to fatigue) and S (slow) MUs in each species (the highest amplitudes were measured for FF and the lowest for S MUs), but there were no significant differences between cat and rat when respective types of MUs were compared. The shapes of MUAPs were commonly characterized by biphasic waveforms composed of two or three turns in all types of units, and no interspecies differences were revealed. Several factors influencing MUAP parameters were discussed indicating most of all importance of variable length of cat and rat muscle fibres and ambiguous influence of motor unit size, thickness of muscle fibres and their density around the recording electrode in the MG muscle of both species.     

Effect of aging on properties of motor unit action potentials in the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether age-related changes in motor unit (MU) contractile properties are reflected in parameters of motor unit action potentials (MUAPs). MUs of the medial gastrocnemius muscle were functionally isolated in anaesthetized Wistar rats. A control group of young animals (5–10 mo) was compared to two groups of old rats (24–25 mo and 28–30 mo). The basic contractile properties of MUs as well as the amplitude, total duration, peak-to-peak time, and number of turns within MUAPs were measured. Effects of aging were mainly observed for fast fatigable MUs (a prolongation of MUAPs and increased number of turns). The MUAP amplitude did not change significantly with aging in either MU type, but it correlated to the twitch or tetanic forces, which tended to increase with age, especially for slow MUs. We concluded that the prolongation of MUAPs and the greater incidence of signal turns was probably a result of a decrease in muscle fiber conduction velocity and/or an increase in their dispersion, and enlargement of MU territories – presumably caused by axonal sprouting of surviving motoneurons. The latter might also be responsible for the observed age-related tendency for a increase in MUAP amplitudes in slow MUs.     

Determination of feature relevance for the grouping of motor unit action potentials through a generative mixture model

The study of motor unit action potential (MUAP) activity from electromyographic signals is important for neurological investigations aiming to understand the state of the neuromuscular system. In this context, the identification and clustering of MUAPs that exhibit common characteristics, and the assessment of which data features are most relevant for the definition of such cluster structure, are central issues. In this paper, we propose the application of an unsupervised feature relevance determination (FRD) method to the analysis of experimental MUAPs. This method is embedded in a constrained mixture of distributions model that simultaneously performs data clustering and visualization. The experimental results of the analysis of a data set consisting of MUAPs measured from the First Dorsal Interosseous, a hand muscle, indicate that the features corresponding to the hyperpolarization period in the physiological process of generating muscle fibre action potentials are consistently estimated to be the most relevant. Moreover, the MUAP cluster structure of the data is shown to be only partially attributable to inter-subject differences, with the hyperpolarization period providing the best discrimination of the data by subject.     

Measuring the accuracies of motor unit firing times and action potential waveforms derived from surface electromyographic decomposition

This study included spike trigger averaging (STA) procedures to examine the acceptability of the Precision Decomposition (PD) III derived motor unit action potential (MUAP) trains that met the >90% accuracy criteria from the reconstruct-and-test. MUs met the >90% accuracy criteria from the reconstruct-and-test with STA procedures then applied. Y-intercepts and slopes were calculated for the firing rate- and MUAP amplitude-recruitment threshold relationships. Gaussian noise (1% of the SD of the mean interspike interval) was added to the firing times with the changes in MUAPs quantified. A total of 455 MUs were decomposed with 155 MUs removed as a result of the reconstruct-and-test. Five additional MUs were excluded via the STA criteria. The MUAP waveforms deteriorated with the inclusion of Gaussian noise. There were differences in the derived action potentials amplitudes of higher-threshold MUs between the PD III algorithm and the STA procedure. There was excellent agreement among the slopes and y-intercepts between the relationships that included or excluded MUs that did not meet the STA criteria. There was good agreement between the MUAP amplitude-recruitment threshold relationships derived from the PD III and STA procedure. The addition of the STA procedures did not alter the MU-derived relationships.     

Spatial distribution of surface action potentials generated by individual motor units in the human biceps brachii muscle

This study analyses the spatial distribution of individual motor unit potentials (MUPs) over the skin surface and the influence of motor unit depth and recording configuration on this distribution. Multichannel surface (13 × 5 electrode grid) and intramuscular (wire electrodes inserted with needles of lengths 15 and 25 mm) electromyographic (EMG) signals were concurrently recorded with monopolar derivations from the biceps brachii muscle of 10 healthy subjects during 60-s isometric contractions at 20% of the maximum torque. Multichannel monopolar MUPs of the target motor unit were obtained by spike-triggered averaging of the surface EMG. Amplitude and frequency characteristics of monopolar and bipolar MUPs were calculated for locations along the fibers’ direction (longitudinal), and along the direction perpendicular (transverse) to the fibers. In the longitudinal direction, monopolar and bipolar MUPs exhibited marked amplitude changes that extended for 16–32 mm and 16–24 mm over the innervation and tendon zones, respectively. The variation of monopolar and bipolar MUP characteristics was not symmetrical about the innervation zone. Motor unit depth had a considerable influence on the relative longitudinal variation of amplitude for monopolar MUPs, but not for bipolar MUPs. The transverse extension of bipolar MUPs ranged between 24 and 32 mm, whereas that of monopolar MUPs ranged between 72 and 96 mm. The mean power spectral frequency of surface MUPs was highly dependent on the transverse electrode location but not on depth. This study provides a basis for the interpretation of the contribution of individual motor units to the interference surface EMG signal.     

Spatial analysis of motor unit potentials of the rat medial gastrocnemius

The spatial analysis of the potentials of single motor units of the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle evoked by stimulation of the fibres of split ventral roots was carried out with a bipolar electrode moving in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the muscle fibres. During this movement of the electrode a variability was observed in the time of the biphasic potential from its maximum to minimum, and in the peak-to-peak amplitude of these potentials. The potentials recorded outside the territory of the motor unit had a lower amplitude in relation to the potentials from the territory of the unit. This made localization of the motor unit on the cross-section of the muscle possible. Differences in the duration of the potential from maximal to minimal amplitude (maximum-minimum amplitude time--M-MAT) of each investigated motor unit from successive recording sites reflected the number of fibres contributing to the action potential and the distance of the recording surface of the electrode from the zone of the motor end-plates of this motor unit. The greatest diameter of the territory of the observed motor units reached 2.5 mm.     

Influence of timing variability between motor unit potentials on M-wave characteristics

The transient enlargement of the compound muscle action potential (M wave) after a conditioning contraction is referred to as potentiation. It has been recently shown that the potentiation of the first and second phases of a monopolar M wave differed drastically; namely, the first phase remained largely unchanged, whereas the second phase underwent a marked enlargement and shortening. This dissimilar potentiation of the first and second phases has been suggested to be attributed to a transient increase in conduction velocity after the contraction. Here, we present a series of simulations to test if changes in the timing variability between motor unit potentials (MUPs) can be responsible for the unequal potentiation (and shortening) of the first and the second M-wave phases. We found that an increase in the mean motor unit conduction velocity resulted in a marked enlargement and narrowing of both the first and second M-wave phases. The enlargement of the first phase caused by a global increase in motor unit conduction velocities was apparent even for the electrode located over the innervation zone and became more pronounced with increasing distance to the innervation zone, whereas the potentiation of the second phase was largely independent of electrode position. Our simulations indicate that it is unlikely that an increase in motor unit conduction velocities (accompanied or not by changes in their distribution) could account for the experimental observation that only the second phase of a monopolar M wave, but not the first, is enlarged after a brief contraction. However, the combination of an increase in the motor unit conduction velocities and a spreading of the motor unit activation times could potentially explain the asymmetric potentiation of the M-wave phases.     

Parameters of action potentials of motor units in diabetic patients as determined by electromyography using skin surface leads

Motor units were studied in children by means of electromyography using skin surface leads. In the control group of healthy children, 295 action potentials typical of the age dynamics were recorded from motor units. In the group of children with type I diabetes mellitus and diabetic polyneuropathy, a higher amplitude and a longer duration of motor unit action potentials than in the control group, which are typical of diabetic polyneuropathy, were observed.