Associations between the rates of elongation of the short bones of the hand

Data from serial radiographs of 40 children were used to study the rates of total, diaphyseal and epiphyseal elongation of the bones of the hand from 3–13 years. Communality indices were calculated from complete correlation matrices for each sex. These indices tended to be lower for boys than girls. Communality indices for distal phalanges were lower than for the other bones and those for epiphyseal elongation were lower than those for total or diaphyseal elongation. Correlations between groups of bones in their rates of elongation were higher in rows of bones than in rays. There were statistically significant neighborhood effects and a slight tendency to marginal effects in the correlations between rates of elongation in rows of bones; neither of these effects was present in rays.     

Communalities for rates of diaphyseal elongation of short bones of the hand of children with Down syndrome

Communality indices for rates of elongation of diaphyses of short bones of the hand were computed from serial data for children with Down syndrome, 7 to 14 years of age. Communalities were larger for adjacent than for nonadjacent bones and also larger for bones grouped in rows rather than rays of the hand. This pattern is similar to that reported for normal children. Communality indices for rates of diaphyseal elongation for girls with Down syndrome were lower than those of boys with Down syndrome and normal children.     

Associations between the rates of maturation and growth in the short bones of the hand

Serial radiographs of the hand-wrist were used to analyze the associations within bones between the rates of change in skeletal maturity, diaphyseal and epiphyseal lengths and diaphyseal width. In previous studies of these children, it has been shown that these rates are linear in relation to chronological age. The associations between the rates of change in these parameters were analyzed using the slopes (b values) for regression lines flitted to the data in each child. In individual bones, most of the correlation coefficients were moderate to low; some were negative. For most associations in each sex they were relatively high for metacarpal II. The rates of skeletal maturation and diaphyseal elongation were correlated more highly in the girls than in the boys but the rates of skeletal maturation and epiphyseal elongation were correlated more highly in the boys. When bones were considered in groups, relatively high correlations were noted for the metacarpals and ray II, lower correlations were common for the middle and distal phalanges. There was no evidence of real neighborhood effects but marginal effects were present.     

Rates of change in width and length-width ratios of the diaphyses of the hand

The minimum width and the length of each diaphysis of the hand were measured on serial radiographs of 20 boys and 20 girls. These radiographs were taken close to each birthday at ages from 3 to 13 years inclusive. The corresponding length-width ratios were calculated from these parameters. The b values (indicating rates of change) were calculated for width and length-width ratio in each diaphysis in each child. Communality indices (mean r between b values) were calculated for individual diaphyses. These communality indices reflect the associations between each diaphysis and all the other diaphyses of the hand in their rates of change in width and length-width ratio. The sex differences were not statistically significant for mean b values but they were significant for the communality indices for width (boys higher) and length-width ratio (girls higher). Statistically significant neighborhood effects were present in communality indices for widths within rays for the girls and for ratios within rays for both sexes. There were statistically significant marginal effects in communality indices for widths in the girls within rows and for length-width ratios in the boys within rays.     

Development and growth of long bones in European water frogs (Amphibia: Anura: Ranidae), with remarks on age determination

Differentiation and development of long bones were studied in European water frogs: Rana lessonae, R. ridibunda, and R. esculenta. The study included premetamorphic larvae (Gosner Stage 40) to frogs that were 5 years old. Femora, metatarsal bones, and proximal phalanges of the hindlimb exhibit the same pattern of periosteal bone differentiation and the same pattern of growth. Longitudinal and radial growth of these bones was studied by examination of the diaphyses and epiphyses, particularly where the edge of periosteal bone is inserted into the epiphysis. The periosteum seems to be responsible for both longitudinal and radial growth. Investigation of the formation, length, and arrangement of lines of arrested growth reveals that the first line is present only in the middle 25-35% of the length of the diaphysis of an adult bone; therefore, only the central portion of the diaphysis should be used for age estimation in skeletochronological studies. Comparison of the shapes and histological structures of epiphyses in the femur, metatarsal bones, and phalanges revealed that epiphyseal cartilages are composed of an inner and outer part. The inner metaphyseal cartilage has distinct zones and plugs the end of the periosteal bone cylinder; its role in longitudinal growth is questioned. The outer epiphyseal cartilage is composed of articular cartilages proper, in addition to lateral articular cartilages. Differences in the symmetry of the lateral articular cartilages of distal epiphyses of the femur and toes may reflect adaptations to different kinds of movements at the knee and in the foot.     

Levels of Intraspecific Variation Within the Catarrhine Skeleton

The amount of phenotypic variation between conspecifics is largely a result of the opposing forces of constraint and plasticity. Because selection is the product of competition between individuals of the same species, understanding the interactions between these forces is vital to understanding evolution. We investigated levels of intraspecific variation in the catarrhine skeleton using a morphometric analysis of 245 crania and 189 appendicular postcranial skeletons. We identified regions of interest from the literature and made comparisons of intraspecific variation between the appendicular postcranium and cranium, the forelimb and hind limb, the diaphyses and epiphyses of long bones, and the diaphyses of the proximal and distal segments of the limbs. We confirmed that variation is significantly higher in the appendicular postcranium than in the cranium, in the forelimb compared to the hind limb, and in the diaphyses compared to the epiphyses. Further, we found that this pattern was repeated in 12 species spanning the infraorder, suggesting a characteristic of catarrhines in general. The relatively low level of variation in the cranium suggests that constraint is more widespread in this region compared to the appendicular postcranium, which is more plastic, especially in the diaphyses of the forelimb. In contrast to previous studies, we found the diaphyses of the distal segment to be more variable than the diaphyses of the proximal segment. The results from this study, which show regional differences in intraspecific variation, will aid the interpretation of evolutionary and plastic influences on morphological variation and inform decisions about which skeletal regions are suitable for answering specific evolutionary questions.     

Fluctuating asymmetry and morphometric variation of hand bones

The major aim of this study was to test three hypotheses: 1) more complex traits of the hand are less prone to developmental insults and therefore show lower fluctuating asymmetry (FA) as compared with simple traits; 2) the manifestation of FA correlates with the variability of the trait (i.e., CV); and 3) FA is an organ-wide property, and therefore a concordance exists between the FA measures of different traits in hand bones. Seventy-two bilateral measurements of hand bones, were made from plain-film radiographs of 365 cadavers. A complex trait was considered as the total length of the three phalanges of a finger and their contiguous metacarpals. Simple traits were considered to be the lengths of individual bone that made up the complex trait. The following results were obtained: 1) on the average simple traits, composing the complex trait, show much higher FA than the corresponding complex trait, but this result is expected if there is no correlation (or low correlation) between FA of simple traits within the complex trait, due to random direction of right-left differences; 2) strong and highly significant correlation was observed between FA and CV of studied traits, regardless of sex and age of individuals; and 3) the majority of FA measurements of hand bones showed no correlation. However, correlations between some sets of FA traits were highly significant. They were interpreted, although not specifically tested, as the result of a tight relationship between traits related not only developmentally but also by active performance of the same function. Am J Phys Anthropol 107:125–136, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Bilateral asymmetry in the limb bones of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

There is much debate in behavioral primatology on the existence of population-level handedness in chimpanzees. The presence or absence of functional laterality in great apes may shed light on the origins of human handedness and on the evolution of cerebral asymmetry. The plasticity of long bone diaphyses in response to mechanical loading allows the functional interpretation of differences in cross-sectional geometric. While left-right asymmetry in upper limb diaphyseal morphology is a known property in human populations, it remains relatively unexplored in apes. We studied bilateral asymmetry in 64 skeletons of wild-caught chimpanzee using the humerus, second metacarpal, and femur. The total subperiosteal area (TA) of the diaphyses was measured at 40% of maximum humeral length and at the midshaft of the metacarpals and femora using external silicone molds. Overall, the TA values of the left humeri were significantly greater than the right, indicating directional asymmetry. This effect was even greater when the magnitude of difference in TA between each pair of humeri was compared. The right second metacarpals showed a tendency toward greater area than did the left, but this did not reach statistical significance. The lack of asymmetry in the femur serves as a lower limb control, and suggests that the upper limb results are not a product of fluctuating asymmetry. These findings imply behavioral laterality in upper limb function in chimpanzees, and suggest a complementary relationship between precision and power.     

The elongation of the human cervical vertebral column

Cervical vertebral elongation has been studied using serial cephalometric radiographs of 32 children examined regularly from 0.25 to 17 years. Mean vertebral body heights increased rapidly to about 2.5 years and then decelerated except for a spurt at about the age of peak height velocity. There were only small sex differences in vertebral body elongation to 12 years. From then to 15 years, the vertebral body heights in the girls exceeded those in the boys; later this sex difference was reversed. There was no pubertal spurt in disc elongation. The correlation coefficients were negative between vertebral body heights and the heights of adjoining intervertebral discs, e.g., body C3 and disc C3–4, but those between body heights or between disc heights were positive. The heights of adjacent cervical vertebral bodies were correlated more highly than the heights of non-adjacent bodies. There was a similar pattern of differences between correlation coefficients for the heights of adjacent and non-adjacent intervertebral discs.     

Associations between the rates of maturation of the bones of the hand-wrist

Skeletal maturation rates for the age interval 3 to 13 years were analyzed using bone-specific assessments (Greulich-Pyle) of serial radiographs of 40 children. The mean rates of skeletal maturation resembled those of the population from which the atlas standards had been derived. There was a linear trend of skeletal age against chronological age for most bones in each sex. Regression lines were fitted to these data and the b values of the regression lines were calculated. Communality indices were calculated from an intercorrelation matrix of these b values. There was a statistically significant rank order correlation between the sexes in the communality indices. They tended to be higher in the girls than in the boys and were relatively low for the radius, ulna and carpals. Communality indices within groups of bones were high in all rows, especially the metacarpals, but in each sex they were comparatively low in the first ray (metacarpal plus the phalanges of the corresponding digit) and in the fifth ray of the boys. Neighborhood effects on the levels of association of maturation rates were present, particularly in the carpus, but marginal effects were not noted.     

Permanence of proliferating cells in developing,juvenile and adult knee epiphyses of lizards in relation to bone growth and regeneration

The distribution of long‐labelling‐retaining cells, putative progenitor or stem cells, in the developing knees of embryo, juvenile and adult lizards has been analysed using H3‐thymidine autoradiography and 5BrdU immunohistochemistry. Proliferating cells are present in developing cartilaginous femur and tibia, especially in the epiphyses where a higher cell multiplication likely determines their typical enlarged shape in comparison with the diaphyses where chondroblast proliferation is low to absent. Sparse 5BrdU‐labelled cells remain in the articular and growth plate cartilages of the epiphyses in older stages of development and are still detected in developing epiphyses 13 days after injection of 5BrdU. This indicates they are slow‐cycling cells, a typical characteristic for progenitor or stem cells. Long retaining 5BrdU‐labelled cells remain in the articular surface also during adult life where they likely sustain the growth of long bones. Adult epiphyses show secondary ossification centres where the articular cartilage is partially or largely replaced by bone trabeculae. The damage in the epiphysis of lizards stimulates the proliferation of progenitor cells for the regeneration of new cartilaginous epiphyses. The localization of cells capable of proliferation in the epiphyses of adult femur and tibia pre‐adapts these lizards to cartilage regeneration in case of injury.     

Metacarpal synostosis: a simple classification and a new treatment technique

The current classification of metacarpal synostosis is based on the extent of the synostosis. The authors propose a new classification that takes into account the shape of the metacarpal bones, the curvature of the epiphysis, and the discrepancy in length between the two bones. This classification provides better guidelines for the correction of all components of the deformity. The classification is based on the authors' observations of and experience with 36 cases of metacarpal synostosis; 13 of the deformities were surgically corrected. The I-shaped deformity, whether with distinct (type d) or fused (type f) metacarpophalangeal joints, does not require surgical correction. The U-shaped deformity has parallel epiphysis and does not require surgery unless the two metacarpals are asymmetrical in length (type a) or tightly fused (type t); in these cases, simple lengthening or widening of the space with a bone graft is sufficient. Y-shaped synostosis should be separated whether the branches are symmetrical or asymmetrical, the latter having one branch shorter than the other. Because the epiphyses are already divergent, simple separation does not effectively correct Y-shaped synostosis. The authors propose an osteotomy to isolate a trapezoidal segment of bone from the bifurcation. The isolated bone segment is then reversed in the proximal-distal direction to provide a "plateau" upon which the two distal metacarpals can be realigned. Two cases of Ys (symmetrical) synostosis were successfully treated with this technique; one case of Ya (asymmetrical) synostosis also required distraction lengthening of the shorter metacarpal to achieve an excellent result. One of the most difficult types of metacarpal synostosis to treat is k-shaped synostosis, observed only between the fourth and fifth metacarpals; in this type, the head of the short fifth metacarpal abuts the metaphysis of the fourth. Osteotomy and distraction lengthening provide predictable results for correction of this deformity. The authors suggest that k-shaped synostosis might represent a late evolution of untreated Ua synostosis.     

雌酚酮体外影响骨生长的形态学研究

目的：从组织形态学角度综合考察雌酚酮在体外对骨吸收和骨形成的影响。方法：１６ｄ胎龄雌性小鼠尺骨在含有雌酚酮的ＢＧＪｂ培养基中旋转培养４８ｈ后,测量骨总长和骨干长度;Ｈ．Ｅ染色,光镜下计数破骨细胞和肥大软骨细胞。结果：当雌酚酮浓度为１０＾－７ｍｏｌ／Ｌ时,长骨总长和骨干长均比对照组显著增加;破骨细胞减少,肥大软骨细胞增加。结论：雌酚酮在体外可抑制骨吸收,促进骨形成。     

Facilitation and interference components in the Simon effect.

In four experiments we investigated whether the Simon effect consists of both facilitation and interference. In Experiment 1 subjects had to press one of two lateralized keys in response to one of two stimuli (a rectangle or a square). The stimuli were presented at fixation or to the right or left of it. The stimulus-response mappings could be corresponding (i.e., right key--rectangle or square on the right side), non-corresponding (i.e., right key--rectangle or square on the left side), or neutral (i.e., stimulus in the center). Results showed both facilitation and interference effects, but interference was three times greater than facilitation. To test whether the neutral position was favored by visual acuity, Experiments 2, 3 and 4 used slight different displays where visual acuity was the same at every stimulus position. Results indicated that the Simon effect is comprised of facilitation and interference components of the same magnitude. These findings were discussed with reference to dual-route models of the Simon effect.     

A microanatomical and histological study of the fin long bones of the Devonian sarcopterygian Eusthenopteron foordi

Meunier F.J. and Laurin M. 2012. A microanatomical and histological study of the fin long bones of the Devonian sarcopterygian Eusthenopteron foordi. —Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 93 : 88–97. A paleohistological study of the endoskeletal bones of the dorsal and pelvic fins shows that Eusthenopteron foordi had true long bones that grew in length and thickness through endochondral and periosteal ossification, respectively. Endochondral ossification required cartilaginous epiphyses with a growth plate system whose presence is confirmed by both calcified cartilage and thin endochondral bony trabeculae that overlaid the erosive bays located in hypertrophic calcified cartilage. Articulations between axial mesomeres in paired fins were diarthroses. This microanatomical organization, i.e. longitudinal growth of diaphysis and articulations between epiphyses, can be considered an exaptation for terrestrial locomotion as it can produce skeletal elements able to support strong mechanical stress.     

The dynamics of bone structure development during pubertal growth

The pubertal growth spurt is a time of rapid changes in bone length, mass and structure, followed by the cessation of longitudinal growth. The two best studied anatomical areas in this respect are the metaphyses and the diaphyses of peripheral long bones. A model is presented here in which the speed of longitudinal growth and the resulting age gradient in metaphyseal bone are key factors in explaining the high incidence of distal radius fractures during puberty. As growth in length accelerates, the age of the bone structural elements at a given distance to the growth plate decreases, leaving less time for cortical thickening through trabecular coalescence. This leads to a discrepancy between stagnant metaphyseal bone strength and increasing mechanical requirements in the case of accidents. In comparison to the metaphysis, diaphyseal bone develops more in line with the increasing mechanical requirements, presumably because the bone formation rates needed for diaphyseal growth in width are only a fraction of the apposition rates in the metaphysis. It remains largely unexplored how local and systemic signals are integrated to achieve site-specific changes in bone structure.     

Relationship between tooth and long bone size

Canonical correlations between tooth and long bone dimensions showed a greater correlation for Anglo-Saxons and apes than for Nineteenth Century Londoners, i.e., coefficients of 0.75 for gorilla, 0.72 for chimpanzee, 0.69 for orang-utans, 0.74 for Anglo-Saxons, but 0.53 for Nineteenth Century Londoners. Although based upon limited sample sizes and limited metrical profiles of teeth and long bones, the data support the thesis that modern Europeans are under reduced selection pressure to maintain tooth size compared with apes or ancient man.     

Metacarpophalangeal length changes in humans during adulthood: a longitudinal study.

Total lengths of the 19 diaphyseal hand bones were measured from standardized radiographs of healthy American whites as young adults (ca. 21 years) and again at ca. 55 years of age. The four hand-bone rows exhibit distinctive length changes: Distal and middle phalanges continue to increase significantly in length, proximal phalanges constitute a transition zone of little change, and metacarpals uniformly decrease in length. Clear-cut sex differences are noteworthy: Males change more (lose more in some bone rows, gain more in others) than females. Progressive elongation was greatest in the distal phalanges where apposition around the distal aspect ("tufting") is not constrained by a joint or epiphysis. Loss of bone length in the metacarpals by subchondral resorption is consistent with documented reductions in activity levels and grip strength with age, as well as diminished joint spaces which alter loading of the joints.     

Features of adaptive changes in the knee joints of fencers exposed to specialized loads

Sportsman-fencers (683 persons) of various qualification and types of fencing (sabre fencers, foil fencers, swordsmen) have been roentgenologically examined. Of them 97 have been examined for the second time in a year. For a comparison 204 persons nonsportsmen have been examined. Increased specialized loadings of chop-push character, peculiar for fencing, accelerate processes of bone sinostosis and result in certain morphological changes in the components of the knee joint: the joint cartilage becomes thinner (as demonstrates the roentgenologically measured joint cleft), periostal osteogenesis on the surface of epiphyses, endothelial osteogenesis in the bone diaphyses become activated.     

Scaling of the appendicular skeleton of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

Giraffes have remarkably long and slender limb bones, but it is unknown how they grow with regard to body mass, sex, and neck length. In this study, we measured the length, mediolateral (ML) diameter, craniocaudal (CC) diameter and circumference of the humerus, radius, metacarpus, femur, tibia, and metatarsus in 10 fetuses, 21 females, and 23 males of known body masses. Allometric exponents were determined and compared. We found the average bone length increased from 340 ± 50 mm at birth to 700 ± 120 mm at maturity, while average diameters increased from 30 ± 3 to 70 ± 11 mm. Fetal bones increased with positive allometry in length (relative to body mass) and in diameter (relative to body mass and length). In postnatal giraffes bone lengths and diameters increased iso‐ or negatively allometric relative to increases in body mass, except for the humerus CC diameter which increased with positive allometry. Humerus circumference also increased with positive allometry, that of the radius and tibia isometrically and the femur and metapodials with negative allometry. Relative to increases in bone length, both the humerus and femur widened with positive allometry. In the distal limb bones, ML diameters increased isometrically (radius, metacarpus) or positively allometric (tibia, metatarsus) while the corresponding CC widths increased with negative allometry and isometrically, respectively. Except for the humerus and femur, exponents were not significantly different between corresponding front and hind limb segments. We concluded that the patterns of bone growth in males and females are identical. In fetuses, the growth of the appendicular skeleton is faster than it is after birth which is a pattern opposite to that reported for the neck. Allometric exponents seemed unremarkable compared to the few species described previously, and pointed to the importance of neck elongation rather than leg elongation during evolution. Nevertheless, the front limb bones and especially the humerus may show adaptation to behaviors such as drinking posture. J. Morphol. 276:503–516, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.