中国的短尾猴

短尾猴是体型最大的猴科动物,因较为罕见故常被传为“野八”。本文指出其食物几全为植物。冬季分堆坐在石壁上而夏季又分散在树上睡眠。交配和产仔有明显的季节性,雌性５－６岁,雄性７岁性成熟,雄猴成年后有换群现象。群内有严格的顺位关系,文中例举了攻击,理毛,礼仪,抱子和性等行为,并指出若干行为属短尾猴所特有。文末对保护和管理短尾猴资源提出了具体的建议。     

黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为比较

为探讨黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为与猴(行为发起者)和游人(行为承受者)年龄/性别组的关系,于2008年11-12月和2009年4-5月以黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑YAl群和YA2群为研究对象,将其攻击行为按照危害程度大小划分为3类,采用全事件取样法和连续取样法观察记录猴对游人攻击行为类型、发生攻击行为的短尾猴和受到攻击的游人年龄/性别组,并统计猴群和游人数最.研究发现,成年雄猴所有攻击行为发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年雌猴和未成年猴攻击行为Ⅲ(威胁)发乍的比例显著低于期望值(P<0.01);在游人中,成年男性受到所有攻击发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年女性和末成年人受到攻击行为Ⅲ发生的比例显著低十期单值(P<0.01).结果表明,黄山矩尾猴对游人的攻击行为在人猴年龄/性别组中存在差异.成年雄性比成年雌性和未成年猴更易攻击游人,成年男性游人比成年女性和未成年人更易受剑短尾猴攻击.建议在管理过程中重点监控管理成年雄猴和提醒成年男性游人,这为进一步探讨人猴之间关系提供科学基础,并为其他类似地区生态旅游监管提供案例以供借鉴.     

雌性黄山短尾猴回避近亲交配

本研究分别在交配期(2006年9月-2006年12月)和产仔期(2007年1月-2007年4月)对黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑YA1群中5只雄猴和5只雌猴成年个体采用目标动物法、随机取样法和连续记录法记录行为参数。研究期间记录交配行为336例:母子交配0例;母系兄妹交配7例(占2.1%),其中强行交配4例;非亲缘关系交配329例(占97.9%),非亲缘关系交配频次显著高于亲缘关系。在交配期,雄猴对亲缘雌猴跟随、性检查频次均低于非亲缘雌猴,接近指数(PMI)在亲缘和非亲缘雌猴间无显著性差异;雌猴对亲缘雄猴交配拒绝率显著高于非亲缘雄猴,接近指数在交配期显著低于非亲缘雄猴,产仔期接近指数在亲缘和非亲缘雄猴间无显著性差异。尽管雄猴在交配选择上趋于避免与亲缘雌猴交配,但某些雄猴仍会主动对有亲缘关系的雌猴邀配或强行交配,雌猴则主动回避。这些结果表明:黄山短尾猴母系亲属间可以通过行为倾向抑制近亲交配发生,且雌猴更主动回避交配,支持了近交回避的双亲投资理论。     

短尾猴和日本猴雄性性行为的比较研究

本文比较研究了短尾猴和日本猴的雄性性行为。短尾猴属单次爬跨射精型种类,每次交配平均持续23.2秒,日本猴属多次爬跨射精型种类,每次交配平均持续8.2分,交配期间雄性平均爬跨雌性lO.6次才能达到射精。短尾猴第1顺位雄性是群中的主要交配者,它占有交配总数的70.9 %;而日本猴第5顺位以下的雄性占交配总数的64%。交配中,两种猴雄性间相互打搅行为的发生频率大致相当。短尾猴高顺位雄性的打搅行为能使低顺位雄性的交配中断,但日本猴高顺位的打搅行为只能使低顺位雄性交配的54.3%中断。     

短尾猴与红面猴细胞色素b基因变异特点及系统发育分析

测定了2个短尾猴和1个红面猴个体的线粒体细胞色素b基因全序列,与猕猴、食蟹猴和叟猴的序列合并比较,分析了核苷酸序列差异和碱基替换特点,并以阿拉伯狒狒为外群,构建系统发生树。结果表明,短尾猴基因序列中A、T、G、C的含量分别为29.0%、25.5%、11.8%、33.6%,红面猴中A、T、G、C的含量分别为29.4%、24.3%、11.4%、34.9%,碱基组成具有哺乳动物的共同特点,短尾猴与红面猴序列间的同源性为90.1%。红面猴与食蟹猴之间的同义替换和异义替换值(Ks、Ka)以及Kimura双参数距离都要小于红面猴与短尾猴之间的差异值,在构建的系统发生树中,叟猴最早分化出来,红面猴并未与短尾猴聚为一支,而是与猕猴、食蟹猴聚在了一起。     

短尾猴的种群生物学

短尾猴是高等灵长类动物,中国特有物种。是多雄多雌群体,猴群中性成熟雌雄性比接近于1：1,雌性略多于雄性。虽然雌性定居、雄性移民,但大多数雄性的迁出发生在成年以后,而不是成年之前。社会和生态因素在调节猴群的数量中都有重要作用。雄性个体之间具有复杂的行为,雄猴之间频繁交往,以减少群体的紧张。猴群内具有严格的社会等级关系,年轻雄猴是群体的最高统治者。     

保护动物（灵长类和食肉类）

保护动物（灵长类和食肉类）列入国家保护的灵长类动物有：一级：蜂猴、熊猴、台湾猴、尾猴、菲氏叶猴、灰叶猴、黑叶猴、金丝猴、滇金丝猴、白眉长臂猿、黑长臂猿等十一种。二级：红面猴、猕猴、四川短尾猴等三种。列入国家保护的食肉类动物有：一级：马来熊、大熊猫、紫...     

短尾猴和猕猴在中国安徽省南部的分布

短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)和猕猴(Macaca mulatta)在安徽省的分布见于长江以南,短尾猴限于海拔600-1500米的山地,而猕猴则从平地一直分布到没有短尾猴占据的较高山地。短尾猴所选择的栖息地海拔高度较高,并决定于是否有悬崖和常绿阔叶林。两种猴的分布区,都因人类的严重干扰而缩小。但是,如果其栖息地得到很好的保护,它的种群密度可以接近黄山的水平。两种猴之间的分布界限也反映了它们生态关系的一般形式。     

雄性黄山短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)攻击支持雌性以换取交配回报

生物市场理论认为动物个体之间通过某种协定交换有价值的商品,使双方均受益。该研究采用目标动物法、行为取样法和连续记录法,对浮溪黄山野生猴谷鱼鳞坑短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)A1群(YA1群)和A2群(YA2群)成年个体在非繁殖季节(2011年8月—12月)和繁殖季节(2012年2月—5月)的雄性攻击支持雌性行为和交配行为进行研究,探讨雄性攻击支持雌性与交配之间的关系。两猴群在繁殖季节和非繁殖季节雄性攻击支持雌性与交配行为均呈显著正相关;YA2群繁殖季节与非繁殖季节攻击支持后交配频次均显著高于随机交配;YA1群在繁殖季节攻击支持后交配频次与随机交配频次差异不显著,但在非繁殖季节攻击支持后交配频次显著高于随机交配,说明短尾猴成年雄性攻击支持雌性可以换取与该雌性个体的交配回报。本研究验证了生物市场理论中社会行为存在交换,首次证明了雄性攻击支持可以换取雌性的交配回报,为进一步研究雄性性竞争与雌性选择提供了实例。     

黄山短尾猴繁殖的季节性和雌性性活动方式

1987年开始,我们对中国黄山的短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)的性和繁殖行为进行了研究。本文根据1992年全年野外观察,对黄山短尾猴的繁殖季节性和雌性性活动方式进行深入研究,以揭示短尾猴繁殖方式和雌性性行为如何影响雄性性行为。研究采用全事件取样和目标动物取样法。结果表明,短尾猴黄山种群的交配和产仔是季节性的：交配季节发生在7月至12月,其特征是交配频率高并伴有射精;产仔季节为1月至4月。交配季节之外的交配虽有少量发生．但交配频率很低且几乎不射精。成年雌性的会阴部有轻微肿胀的性皮,但性皮的大小和颜色既不随猴群繁殖季节变化,也不随雌性个体生理周期变化。同时,雌性缺乏典型的性要求的行为——发情。因此,我们认为雌性短尾猴倾向于隐蔽自己的排卵。对46个连续观察日中成年雄性对雌性的性行为分析还表明：雄性能够区别潜在繁殖和不繁殖的雌性但不能对同一雌性的生理状况做出准确判断。隐蔽排卵是雌性在性接受期间接受大量交配的主要原因。本研究否定了短尾猴的交配是非季节性的假设(Wadaand Xicmg,1996)[动物学报51(3)：365—375,2005]。     

Symmetrical patterns in non-agonistic social interactions found in unprovisioned Japanese macaques

Non-agonistic social interactions in an unprovisioned troop of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) were analyzed with the spacing between individuals, leading-following interactions, and exchange of social grooming. The most frequent interactions were found between kin-related females. Unrelated females stayed with one another rather frequently, but rarely exchanged social behaviors. Interactions between males and females were infrequent though they were occasionaly observed between high-ranking males and high-ranking females. Very frequent exchange of grooming was observed between males, and even high-ranking males exchanged grooming more frequently with males than with females. Most non-agonistic social interactions in the study troop were based on bidirectional exchange of social behaviors, in which no clear tendency relevant to dominance or sex was found; while in provisioned Japanese macaque troops, associations between males and females, between unrelated females, and between males were formed mainly be subordinates' active roles in associative behaviors. This seems relevant to the idea that dominance grealty influence social life in provisioned troops. The present study provides guidelines for interspecific comparison of social interaction patterns of macaque species.     

A demographic analysis of the membership of the American Society of Primatologists: 1992

Rank differences in the production of vocalizations by wild, semihabituated, unprovisioned chimpanzees were investigated during a 10-month study in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. Vocalization rates were calculated from data collected during 230 hours of focal-animal sampling on adult females, adult males, and subadult males. Rates were calculated according to whether individuals were alone, with adult females only, or in mixed parties, and the results were compared with published data collected at the Gombe provisioning area. Adult females and low-ranking adult and sub-adult males were generally quiet except when they were in mixed parties, whereas high-ranking males vocalized in all social contexts. These results were in partial contrast to data collected at Gombe, which indicated that vocal production was similar across all age and sex classes. Vocal production at Gombe did, however, resemble that from mixed parties at Kibale, suggesting that the provisioning area at Gombe was comparable to a natural socioecological context occurring at large fruiting trees. It is suggested that low-ranking chimpanzees refrain from loud vocalizing when they are alone or with females only in order to avoid attracting feeding competition and/or potentially aggressive males. These individuals may vocalize when they are associating with high-ranking males in order to advertise the presence of large parties and to deter other individuals from joining them. The use of loud, interparty calls by high-ranking males, when alone or with others, is consistent with the greater sociality of adult male chimpanzees. Loud calling might be advantageous for adult males in attracting mates or allies. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Agonistic Interactions and Matrifocal Dominance Rank of Wild Bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba

I studied dominance relations in a wild group of bonobos at Wamba, Democratic Republic of Congo. Although agonistic interactions between males occurred frequently, most of them consisted only of display, and physical attacks were infrequent. Dominance rank order seemed to exist among males, but its linearity is unclear. Dominant males rarely disturbed copulatory behavior by subordinate males. However, high-ranking males usually stayed in the central position of the mixed party and, so, would have more chance of access to estrous females. Among females, older individuals tended to be dominant over younger individuals. However, agonistic interactions between females occurred rather infrequently, and most consisted of displacement without any overt aggressive behavior. Dominance between males and females is unclear, but females tended to have priority of access to food. The close social status between males and females may be related to the prolonged estrus of females and their close aggregation during ranging. Existence of a male's mother in the group and her dominance status among females seemed to influence his dominance rank among males. Young adult males whose mothers were alive in the group tended to have high status. In some cases, change in dominance between high-ranking males was preceded by a corresponding change in dominance between their mothers. As the dominance status of females is similar to that of males, mothers may be able to support their sons to achieve high status, stay in the center of the mixed party, and so have greater access to females, which may maximize the number of descendants of the mothers.     

Menstrual-cycle phase and sexual behavior in semi-free-ranging stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)

The sexual behavior and female reproductive cycles of a group of island-dwelling stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)were monitored over a 6-month period, yielding 530 observation hr and 268 copulations. Compared to nondominant males, the dominant male copulated at a relatively high rate throughout the cycle, but largely with one high-ranking female. The non-dominant males copulated most frequently at midcycle. Female presenting was highest at midcycle, but only to the dominant male. Cross-study discrepancies may be due to different observation methods and restricted environmental conditions that mask female-initiated sexual behavior. The more naturalistic setting of this study allowed for a fuller expression of proceptivity. Contrary to some previous conclusions, present findings suggest that both hormonal and socioenvironmental factors influence the patterns of sexual behavior found in stumptail macaque colonies.     

Close bonds and social rank similarities favor non-random mating in captive stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides)

Assortative mating is non-random mating by the mutual choice of phenotypes or behavioral types. In polygynandrous species, competition for mating by social rank can lead to assortative mating. However, although not an individual trait, social bonds also influence mating opportunities resembling assortative mating. Stump-tailed macaques form long-term close bonds and organize in a linear dominance–subordination hierarchy. Therefore, we studied whether the strength of the social bond and rank closeness influenced mating decisions and increased mating opportunities, particularly for low- and middle-ranking animals. Firstly, we observed whether females directed proceptive behavior to close-bonded or adjacent rank males. Secondly, we measured whether successful copulations were related to the strength of social bonds and close ranking. Thirdly, to ensure that copulations owed mainly to the aforementioned factors, we also evaluated whether sexual coercion was unrelated to social bonds and rank similarities. Finally, we assessed whether close bonds mediated agonistic support to females. The study subjects were 12 adult female and 11 male captive stump-tailed macaques. We monitored daily females' reproductive status by vaginal cytology. Sexual behavior was recorded by all occurrences sampling and scan sampling to collect the agonistic and affiliative instances required to calculate social ranks, social bond strength, and agonistic support. The results indicated that the probability of females displaying proceptivity increased during the follicular phase toward close-bonded and high-ranking males. Copulation chances increased with male–female social bonds and rank closeness. Forced copulation decreased in close-bonded individuals, while agonistic support increased in close-ranking strong-bonded animals. In conclusion, close social bonds and similar social rank result in non-random mating in stump-tailed macaques.     

Male Social Behavior and Dominance Hierarchy in the Sulawesi Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra)

In a 6-week study of the social behavior of wild Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra), we found a linear and transitive dominance hierarchy among the six adult males in one social group. Dominance rank, as determined by the direction of supplantations, correlated strongly with percentage of time near more than four neighbors, frequency of grooming received from adult females, and percentage of time with an adult female as nearest neighbor. These results suggest that high-ranking males are socially attractive. Adult females sexually solicited high-ranking males more often than low-ranking males, but frequency of copulation was not correlated with dominance rank. Frequency and intensity of aggression between males are strongly correlated with rank distance, but aggression toward females was greatest for mid-ranking males. Males of all rank displayed significantly more aggression toward sexually receptive females than toward females in other estrous states. These data indicate that male Sulawesi crested black macaques display a social organization similar to that reported for multimale groups in other macaque species rather than the egalitarian social organization described for female Sulawesi macaques.     

The effect of male tenure and female mate choice on paternity in free-ranging Japanese macaques

In this study, the paternity of all the infants born in 2002 and 2003 in a free-ranging Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) group at Arashiyama in Kyoto, Japan, was analyzed in relation to males' age, dominance rank, and tenure and females' mate choice. The fathers of 20 out of 23 infants were determined by DNA analyses. Central adult (high-ranking) males sired two infants, whereas peripheral adult (low-ranking) males sired 14 infants. Young males sired only one infant. Among adult males, tenure was the most dominant factor that negatively affected male reproductive success. The mating behavior of females who gave birth was also analyzed. The number of male copulations in the peri-fertilization period was positively correlated with the number of infants that they sired. Females copulated with central males with a long tenure only when fertilization was unlikely or impossible. The females probably avoided insemination by males with a long tenure and selected males with a shorter tenure as their mating partners during the ovulation period.     

Honest advertisement and song output during the dawn chorus of black-capped chickadees

Costly signals can evolve under sexual selection, as only thosesignals that are difficult to produce and reflect the relativequality of individuals should be important in mate choice. Onesuch signal may be dawn singing behavior in birds. We assessedwhether the song output at dawn of breeding male black-cappedchickadees Parus atricapilhis honestly reflects quality, whererelative quality is assessed by relative dominance rank in winterflocks. Dawn choruses were recorded from 20 male chickadeesfrom 10 flocks during the fertile period of their mates in 1992,1994, and 1995. Dominance ranks of males were assessed by tabulatinginteractions at winter feeders from 1993 to 1995. A comparisonof the dawn singing behavior of the high-ranking and the low-rankingmales from each of the 10 flocks showed that high-ranking malesbegan singing earlier, sang longer, and sang at higher averageand maximum rates than low-ranking flockmates. Age of the maleshad less effect on song output at dawn than rank; older malestended to sing longer dawn choruses, but there was no differencein onset of singing, average song rate, or maximum song rateat dawn between hatch year and after-hatch year males. Our findingssuggest the dawn chorus can provide an accurate signal to femalesof the relative quality of their mate compared to neighboringmales     

Allogrooming Behavior and Grooming Site Preferences in Captive Bonobos (Pan paniscus): Association with Female Dominance

I tested the utility of Seyfarth's (1977) model of rank-related attractiveness to explain the distribution of allogrooming behavior among captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). Adult female bonobos generally have high social status and may be dominant over males. As predicted by the model, I found that high-ranking adult females received most allogrooming within each of the four investigated groups. Among adult female-adult female dyads, however, allogrooming was not clearly associated with dominance rank. Contradictory to predictions of the model, the highest-ranking females were responsible for most displacements over allogrooming, and grooming competition is positively correlated with dominance rank. In the second part of this study, I investigated the social significance of allogrooming body site preferences. Bonobos direct significantly most allogrooming to the face of conspecifics, and high- and low-ranking individuals, as well as males and females, differ significantly in their preferences for certain allogrooming sites. Subordinates and males tended to avoid facial grooming and preferred the back and anogenital region, while high-ranking individuals and females directed most allogrooming to the face and head of grooming partners. Data from this study support the hypothesis that high-ranking females are the most attractive grooming partners within a female-centered bonobo society. Many other aspects of allogrooming behavior, however, are not consistent with the model of rank-related attractiveness.     

Peering is not a formal indicator of subordination in bonobos (Pan paniscus)

It has been suggested that peering behavior in bonobos is a formal signal acknowledging social dominance status. We investigated whether peering meets the published criteria for a formal signal of subordination in five captive groups of bonobos. The degree of linearity in the set of peering relationships was significantly high in all study groups, and a linear rank order was found. However, unidirectionality was low, and there was little correspondence between the peering order and the agonistic dominance rank. Therefore, peering does not satisfy the criteria of a formal subordination indicator. We also studied the relation between peering and agonistic dominance rank, age, and sex. Animals directed peering significantly more often at high-ranking animals in four of the groups. We suggest that peering is indirectly related to dominance rank by the resource-holding potential of individuals. In contexts where dominant individuals can monopolize resources, peerers may direct their attention at those high-ranking animals. When resources are distributed more evenly, high-ranking animals may peer down the hierarchy. We speculate on the reasons why a formal dominance or subordination signal appears to be absent in bonobos.