共查询到20条相似文献,搜索用时 15 毫秒
1.
Jane C. Bare Patrick Hofstetter David W. Pennington Helias A. Udo de Haes 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2000,5(6):319-326
On May 25–26, 2000 in Brighton (England), the third in a series of international workshops was held under the umbrella of
UNEP addressing issues in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). The workshop provided a forum for experts to discuss midpoint
vs. endpoint modeling. Midpoints are considered to be links in the cause-effect chain (environmental mechanism) of an impact
category, prior to the endpoints, at which characterization factors or indicators can be derived to reflect the relative importance
of emissions or extractions. Common examples of midpoint characterization factors include ozone depletion potentials, global
warming potentials, and photochemical ozone (smog) creation potentials. Recently, however, some methodologies have adopted
characterization factors at an endpoint level in the cause-effect chain for all categories of impact (e.g., human health impacts
in terms of disability adjusted life years for carcinogenicity, climate change, ozone depletion, photochemical ozone creation;
or impacts in terms of changes in biodiversity, etc.). The topics addressed at this workshop included the implications of
midpoint versus endpoint indicators with respect to uncertainty (parameter, model and scenario), transparency and the ability
to subsequently resolve trade-offs across impact categories using weighting techniques. The workshop closed with a consensus
that both midpoint and endpoint methodologies provide useful information to the decision maker, prompting the call for tools
that include both in a consistent framework. 相似文献
2.
3.
Pascale Schwab Castella Isabelle Blanc Marcel Gomez Ferrer Bastien Ecabert Martyn Wakeman Jan-Anders Manson Daniel Emery Seong-Ho Han Jinglan Hong Olivier Jolliet 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2009,14(5):429-442
Background, aim, and scope A coupled Life Cycle Costing and life cycle assessment has been performed for car-bodies of the Korean Tilting Train eXpress
(TTX) project using European and Korean databases, with the objective of assessing environmental and cost performance to aid
materials and process selection. More specifically, the potential of polymer composite car-body structures for the Korean
Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) has been investigated.
Materials and methods This assessment includes the cost of both carriage manufacturing and use phases, coupled with the life cycle environmental
impacts of all stages from raw material production, through carriage manufacture and use, to end-of-life scenarios. Metallic
carriages were compared with two composite options: hybrid steel-composite and full-composite carriages. The total planned
production for this regional Korean train was 440 cars, with an annual production volume of 80 cars.
Results and discussion The coupled analyses were used to generate plots of cost versus energy consumption and environmental impacts. The results
show that the raw material and manufacturing phase costs are approximately half of the total life cycle costs, whilst their
environmental impact is relatively insignificant (3–8%). The use phase of the car-body has the largest environmental impact
for all scenarios, with near negligible contributions from the other phases. Since steel rail carriages weigh more (27–51%),
the use phase cost is correspondingly higher, resulting in both the greatest environmental impact and the highest life cycle
cost. Compared to the steel scenario, the hybrid composite variant has a lower life cycle cost (16%) and a lower environmental
impact (26%). Though the full composite rail carriage may have the highest manufacturing cost, it results in the lowest total
life cycle costs and lowest environmental impacts.
Conclusions and recommendations This coupled cost and life cycle assessment showed that the full composite variant was the optimum solution. This case study
showed that coupling of technical cost models with life cycle assessment offers an efficient route to accurately evaluate
economic and environmental performance in a consistent way. 相似文献
4.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) results are typically reported as individual scores, or as a breakdown of the most direct inputs; either as absolute values or relative scores. It is proposed to report not only the direct or primary LCIA scores, but also the impacts from secondary and tertiary processes. A graphical technique to report LCIA results is described where a combination of pie and donut charts, with the inner most layer representing direct impacts and subsequent outer layers representing preceding indirect impacts, is presented. An MS-EXCEL spread sheet is presented where the methods and outcomes are shown. This can then be used to display LCIA results. It is possible to present both primary and indirect impacts in a single figure. Significant indirect impacts contributing to the total score of an LCA are clearly visible. 相似文献
5.
Christophe Rafenberg Mayer Eric 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(3):131-144
On behalf of the French press group Le MONDE, four newspapers have been examined in a Life Cycle Assessment study. The products
were the newspaper actually produced and sold in 1995, two other 1995 versions with reduced amounts of unsold circulation
and an improved version manufactured under adequate management control and using paper, inks, printing plates and packaging
material with lower environmental impacts.
Results include the following
System boundaries and references are given in the paper. 相似文献
• | An improved distribution, reducing the unsold circulation by 40% and 80%, does not reduce significantly the relative effect score of the different environmental impacts because the effects of the internal management are predominant. |
• | The development of an improved version of Le MONDE depends more on managerial will than on technical decisions. |
• | The use of vegetal inks improves significantly the air quality inside the printing plant as well as the photochemical oxidant potential. |
6.
Merete Høgaas Eide Thomas Ohlsson 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(4):209-215
Two different methods for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) applied to the dairy industry was performed at two dairies. In the simplified
method, total environmental loads from a dairy was registred and allocated to liquid milk. Energy and emissions are measured
for each process step for the detailed method. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. The simplified method captures
all energy and emissions of dairy processing, but treats the dairy as a “black box”. The energy consumption was found to be
1, 27 MJ/1 and 2,55 MJ/1 for the two dairies. By use of the detailed method it is easy to “loose” information, and it is very
time consuming. The energy consumption was lower than for the simplified method. The environmental loads can on the other
hand be divided on the different process steps. The main conclusion is that choice of method depends on the purpose of the
LCA-study. 相似文献
7.
Duane A. Tolle David P. Evers Bruce W. Vigon John J. Sheehan 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2000,5(6):374-384
This study provides a benchmark of the life cycle environmental impact characteristics associated with a typical soybased
ink used for sheetfed lithographic printing. The scope ineluded a streamlined Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Impact Assessment
(LCIA). Materials, processes, and life cycle stages that are the same between different printing inks, or were less than one
percent by mass of the printing system input materials, were excluded. The LCIA included identification of specific processes
in the life cycle of soy-based ink printing that make the greatest contribution to the overall environmental hazard potential
in 13 impact categories for the baseline printing system selected. The LCIA approach included both regional scaling for areas
that differ in sensitivity to certain impact indicators and normalization against a reference value. Reduction in the use
of tall oil rosin and switching from conventional to low or no-till farming appear to be promising opportunities for reducing
the environmental hazard potential. 相似文献
8.
Andreas Ciroth Marcel Hagelüken Guido W. Sonnemann Francesc Castells Günter Fleischer 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2002,7(6):363-368
Goal and Background Geographical and technological differences in Life Cycle Inventory data are an important source for uncertainty in the result
of Life Cycle Assessments. Knowledge on their impact on the result of an LCA is scarce, and also knowledge on how to manage
them in an LCA case study.
Objective Goal of this paper is to explore these differences for municipal solid waste incinerator plants, and to develop recommendations
for managing technological and geographical differences.
Methodology The paper provides a definition of technological and geographical differences, and analyses their possible impacts. In a case
study, the differences are caused intentionally in ‘games’, by virtually transplanting incineration plants to a different
location and by changing parameters such as the composition of the waste input incinerated. The games are performed by using
a modular model for municipal solid waste incinerator plants. In each case, an LCA including an Impact Assessment is calculated
to trace the impact of these changes, and the results are compared.
Conclusions The conclusions of the paper are two-fold: (1) reduce the differences in inventory data where their impact on the result is
high; where it is possible reducing them to a great extent, and the effort for performing the change acceptable; in the case
of incineration plants: Adapt the flue gas treatment, especially a possible DeNOx step, to the real conditions; (2) make use
of modular process models that allow adapting plant parameters to better meet real conditions, but be aware of possible modelling
errors. We invite the scientific community to validate the model used for a waste incinerator plant, and suggest putting up
similar models for other processes, preferably those of similar relevance for Life Cycle Inventories. 相似文献
9.
Arnold Tukker 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2000,5(3):177-186
Current LCA implicitly assumes that a single rational truth can be found. Mainstream policy sciences has taken a different
starting point when analysing decision making in complex and controversial societal debates for already several decades. In
such debates, in general, more than one reasonable conceptualisation or ‘framing’ of the problem is at stake which forms the
core of the controversy. This paper analyses the Dutch chlorine debate and the Swedish PVC debate and shows that (three) frames
also play a role in toxicity controversies: the risk assessment frame, the strict control frame, and the precautionary frame.
The latter frame, adhered to by the environmentalists, seeks to judge substances mainly on their inherent safety. The cases
show that this logic may be defended as at least being equally reasonable to the emission-effect calculations that form the
core of Risk Assessment and Life-cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). As predicted by policy sciences, this finding implies that
the political neutrality of tools like LCIA is questionable. In summary, the approaches and procedures developed for LCA have
to be reconciled with key lessons from policy science and philosophy of science, i.e. considering the fact that multiple realities
play a key role in many decision making processes. This paper suggests some alternative indicators for toxicity evaluations,
and indicates the implications of LCA method development. 相似文献
10.
Llorenç Milà i Canals Christian Bauer Jochen Depestele Alain Dubreuil Ruth Freiermuth Knuchel Gérard Gaillard Ottar Michelsen Ruedi Müller-Wenk Bernt Rydgren 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2007,12(1):5-15
Background, Aim and Scope
Land use by agriculture, forestry, mining, house-building or industry leads to substantial impacts, particularly on biodiversity
and on soil quality as a supplier of life support functions. Unfortunately there is no widely accepted assessment method so
far for land use impacts. This paper presents an attempt, within the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, to provide a framework
for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) of land use.
Materials and Methods:
This framework builds from previous documents, particularly the SETAC book on LCIA (Lindeijer et al. 2002), developing essential
issues such as the reference for occupation impacts; the impact pathways to be included in the analysis; the units of measure
in the impact mechanism (land use interventions to impacts); the ways to deal with impacts in the future; and bio-geographical
differentiation.
Results:
The paper describes the selected impact pathways, linking the land use elementary flows (occupation; transformation) and parameters
(intensity) registered in the inventory (LCI) to the midpoint impact indicators and to the relevant damage categories (natural
environment and natural resources). An impact occurs when the land properties are modified (transformation) and also when
the current man-made properties are maintained (occupation).
Discussion:
The size of impact is the difference between the effect on land quality from the studied case of land use and a suitable reference
land use on the same area (dynamic reference situation). The impact depends not only on the type of land use (including coverage
and intensity) but is also heavily influenced by the bio-geographical conditions of the area. The time lag between the land
use intervention and the impact may be large; thus land use impacts should be calculated over a reasonable time period after
the actual land use finishes, at least until a new steady state in land quality is reached.
Conclusions:
Guidance is provided on the definition of the dynamic reference situation and on methods and time frame to assess the impacts
occurring after the actual land use. Including the occupation impacts acknowledges that humans are not the sole users of land.
Recommendations and Perspectives:
The main damages affected by land use that should be considered by any method to assess land use impacts in LCIA are: biodiversity
(existence value); biotic production potential (including soil fertility and use value of biodiversity); ecological soil quality
(including life support functions of soil other than biotic production potential). Bio-geographical differentiation is required
for land use impacts, because the same intervention may have different consequences depending on the sensitivity and inherent
land quality of the environment where it occurs. For the moment, an indication of how such task could be done and likely bio-geographical
parameters to be considered are suggested. The recommendation of indicators for the suggested impact categories is a matter
of future research. 相似文献
11.
Zulina Zakaria Mohd Nasir Hassan Muhamad Awang 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(4):191-194
Conclusion In conclusion, LCA that is conducted and used appropriately is an indispensable tool to assist decision-makers in making an
informed decision about the environmental impacts of their activities, products or services. A global effort towards LCA use
should be encouraged and countries in the Asian/Pacific Regions should not be left out. LCA-related activities reported in
the symposium were described 相似文献
12.
Andreas Kicherer Stefan Schaltegger Heinrich Tschochohei Beatriz Ferreira Pozo 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2007,12(7):537-543
Goal, Scope and Background The eco-efficiency analysis and portfolio is a powerful decision support tool for various strategic and marketing issues.
Since its original academic development, the approach has been refined during the last decade and applied to a multitude of
projects. BASF, as possibly the most prominent company using and developing this tool, has applied the eco-efficiency approach
to more than 300 projects in the last 7 years. One of the greatest difficulties is to cover both dimensions of eco-efficiency
(costs or value added and environmental impact) in a comparable manner. This is particularly a challenge for the eco-efficiency
analyses of products.
Methods In this publication, an important approach and field of application dealing with product decisions based on the combination
of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is described in detail. Special emphasis is put on the quantitative
assessment of the relation of costs and environmental impacts. In conventional LCA an assessment of environmental impact categories
is often made by normalization with inhabitant equivalents. This is necessary to be able to compare the different environmental
impact categories, because of each different unit. For the proposed eco-efficiency analysis, the costs of products or processes
are also normalized with adapted gross domestic product figures.
Results and Discussion The ratio between normalized environmental impact categories and normalized costs (RE,C) is used for the graphical presentation of the results in an eco-efficiency portfolio. For the interpretation of the results
of an eco-efficiency analysis, it is important to distinguish ratios RE,C which are higher than one from ratios lower than one. In the first case, the environmental impact is higher than the cost
impact, while the inverse is true in the second case. This is very important for defining which kind of improvement is needed
and defining strategic management decisions. The paper shows a statistical evaluation of the RE,C factor based on the results of different eco-efficiency analyses made by BASF. For industries based on large material flows
(e.g. chemicals, steel, metals, agriculture), the RE,C factor is typically higher than one.
Conclusions and Recommendations This contribution shows that LCC and LCA may be combined in a way that they mirror the concept of eco-efficiency. LCAs that
do not consider LCC may be of very limited use for company management. For that very reason, corporations should install a
data management system that ensures equal information on both sides of the eco-efficiency coin. 相似文献
13.
Wolfram Krewitt Petra Mayerhofer Alfred Trukenmüller Rainer Friedrich 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(2):86-94
Current LCA practice is mass oriented, i.e. is focused on the amount of chemicals released, disregarding place and time of
release. Life cycle impact assessment aims at evaluating potential impacts, and a variety of weighting schemes is discussed
to he used for ranking and aggregation of impacts. To establish a closer link between the quantity of a burden released and
a decision making context, we propose to follow a detailed impact pathway analysis to estimate actual impacts for some priority
impact categories, and use measured individuals’ preferences for impact valuation. Results from a case study illustrate the
relevance of site specific impact assessment in the context of LCA. 相似文献
14.
Tropical forest conversion to agricultural land leads to a strong decrease of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. While the decrease of the soil C sequestration function is easy to measure, the impacts of SOC losses on soil fertility remain unclear. Especially the assessment of the sensitivity of other fertility indicators as related to ecosystem services suffers from a lack of clear methodology. We developed a new approach to assess the sensitivity of soil fertility indicators and tested it on biological and chemical soil properties affected by rainforest conversion to plantations. The approach is based on (non-)linear regressions between SOC losses and fertility indicators normalized to their level in a natural ecosystem. Biotic indicators (basal respiration, microbial biomass, acid phosphatase), labile SOC pools (dissolved organic carbon and light fraction) and nutrients (total N and available P) were measured in Ah horizons from rainforests, jungle rubber, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantations located on Sumatra. The negative impact of land-use changes on all measured indicators increased in the following sequence: forest < jungle rubber < rubber < oil palm. The basal respiration, microbial biomass and nutrients were resistant to SOC losses, whereas the light fraction was lost stronger than SOC. Microbial C use efficiency was independent on land use. The resistance of C availability for microorganisms to SOC losses suggests that a decrease of SOC quality was partly compensated by litter input and a relative enrichment by nutrients. However, the relationship between the basal respiration and SOC was non-linear; i.e. negative impact on microbial activity strongly increased with SOC losses. Therefore, a small decrease of C content under oil palm compared to rubber plantations yielded a strong drop in microbial activity. Consequently, management practices mitigating SOC losses in oil palm plantations would strongly increase soil fertility and ecosystem stability. We conclude that the new approach enables quantitatively assessing the sensitivity and resistance of diverse soil functions to land-use changes and can thus be used to assess resilience of agroecosystems with various use intensities. 相似文献
15.
Using prioritisation tools to strategically restore vegetation communities in fragmented agricultural landscapes
下载免费PDF全文
![点击此处可从《Ecological Management & Restoration》网站下载免费的PDF全文](/ch/ext_images/free.gif)
Sacha Jellinek 《Ecological Management & Restoration》2017,18(1):45-53
Restoring native habitats in heavily cleared and fragmented areas such as agricultural landscapes is important to maintain and increase remaining native floral and faunal communities. Identifying priority vegetation types for restoration – as well as the parcels of land where this restoration could take place at a landscape scale – may assist in strategically protecting these biodiversity assets. To prioritise the restoration of terrestrial habitats around an ecologically and culturally significant Ramsar‐listed wetland in South Australia, we used the spatial prioritisation tool Marxan. Originally designed for prioritising the protection of reserve areas, Marxan can also be used to identify parcels of land for restoration purposes. We tested how Marxan prioritised the restoration of four distinct vegetation types around the Coorong and Lower Lakes region of South Australia using the inverse of habitat remnancy as a cost and soil type and distance to ecologically significant bird species as a conservation feature. By prioritising restoration activities around certain landscape features, such as remnant areas, our results indicate that we would be able to strategically restore parcels of native habitat that would maximise biodiversity outcomes. This study highlights the need for robust input data, such as priority vegetation types and bird species associated with these habitats, to ensure informative modelling outputs. It also suggests that other measures, such as the cost of different land types, should be included in future restoration planning. Finally, we illustrate how prioritisation tools such as Marxan can be used by natural resource managers to restore areas within fragmented agricultural landscapes. 相似文献
16.
17.
A survey of unresolved problems in life cycle assessment 总被引:5,自引:3,他引:2
John Reap Felipe Roman Scott Duncan Bert Bras 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2008,13(5):374-388
Background, aims, and scope Life cycle assessment (LCA) stands as the pre-eminent tool for estimating environmental effects caused by products and processes
from ‘cradle to grave’ or ‘cradle to cradle.’ It exists in multiple forms, claims a growing list of practitioners and remains
a focus of continuing research. Despite its popularity and codification by organizations such as the International Organization
for Standardization and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, life cycle assessment is a tool in need of
improvement. Multiple authors have written about its individual problems, but a unified treatment of the subject is lacking.
The following literature survey gathers and explains issues, problems and problematic decisions currently limiting LCA’s impact
assessment and interpretation phases.
Main features The review identifies 15 major problem areas and organizes them by the LCA phases in which each appears. This part of the
review focuses on the latter eight problems. It is meant as a concise summary for practitioners interested in methodological
limitations which might degrade the accuracy of their assessments. For new researchers, it provides an overview of pertinent
problem areas toward which they might wish to direct their research efforts. Having identified and discussed LCA’s major problems,
closing sections highlight the most critical problems and briefly propose research agendas meant to improve them.
Results and discussion Multiple problems occur in each of LCA’s four phases and reduce the accuracy of this tool. Considering problem severity and
the adequacy of current solutions, six of the 15 discussed problems are of paramount importance. In LCA’s latter two phases,
spatial variation and local environmental uniqueness are critical problems requiring particular attention. Data availability
and quality are identified as critical problems affecting all four phases.
Conclusions and recommendations Observing that significant efforts by multiple researchers have not resulted in a single, agreed upon approach for the first
three critical problems, development of LCA archetypes for functional unit definition, boundary selection and allocation is
proposed. Further development of spatially explicit, dynamic modeling is recommended to ameliorate the problems of spatial
variation and local environmental uniqueness. Finally, this paper echoes calls for peer-reviewed, standardized LCA inventory
and impact databases, and it suggests the development of model bases. Both of these efforts would help alleviate persistent
problems with data availability and quality.
相似文献
Bert BrasEmail: |
18.
N. Theresa Hoagland 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(2):110-113
LCA practice focuses on impacts resulting from the release of chemicals into the environment, but consideration of ‘non-chemical
impacts’ is as important for LCA, particularly as it relates to sustainability. Methodologies and philosophies exist for addressing
non-chemical impacts, particularly in the area of resource depletion and land use, but the problem of comparing or integrating
chemical and non-chemical impacts remains. A new approach for identifying and integrating impacts involves the use of an object-oriented
modeling and simulation platform, such as Department of Energy Argonne National Laboratory’s Dynamic Information Architecture
System (DIAS). LCA and impact categories can be described as ‘objects’ (at any level of detail or specificity) and any combination
of objects and behaviors can be brought into a DIAS analysis frame. Related models that address objects’ behavior characteristics
are linked only to their respective objects, not to each other. Thus, maximum flexibility and speed is possible. The process
of dividing LCA and impact assessment into a hierarchy of objects provides new insights into the complex mixture of dynamic
things, activities, and relationships inherent in LCA and sustainability. Ultimately, embracing the complexity of LCA may
be the way to simplify it. 相似文献
19.
In France, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport have grown steadily since 1950 and transport is now the main source of emissions. Despite technological improvements, urban sprawl increases the environmental stress due to car use. This study evaluates urban mobility through assessments of the transport system and travel habits, by applying life cycle assessment methods to the results of mobility simulations that were produced by a Land Use and Transport Interactions (LUTI) model. The environmental impacts of four life cycle phases of urban mobility in the Lyon area (exhausts, fuel processing, infrastructure and vehicle life cycle) were estimated through nine indicators (global warming potential, particulate matter emissions, photochemical oxidant emissions, terrestrial acidification, fossil resource depletion, metal depletion, non-renewable energy use, renewable energy use and land occupancy). GHG emissions were estimated to be 3.02 kg CO2-eq inhabitant−1 day−1, strongly linked to car use, and indirect impacts represented 21% of GHG emissions, which is consistent with previous studies. Combining life cycle assessment (LCA) with a LUTI model allows changes in the vehicle mix and fuel sources combined with demographic shifts to be assessed, and provides environmental perspectives for transport policy makers and urban planners. It can also provide detailed analysis, by allowing levels of emissions that are generated by different categories of households to be differentiated, according to their revenue and location. Public policies can then focus more accurately on the emitters and be assessed from both an environmental and social point of view. 相似文献
20.
P. Gibbons S.V. Briggs D. Ayers J. Seddon S. Doyle P. Cosier C. McElhinny V. Pelly K. Roberts 《Ecological Indicators》2009,9(1):26-40
We developed a methodology to objectively and transparently assess the impacts on terrestrial biodiversity of proposals to clear native vegetation in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The methodology was developed to underpin a policy to permit land clearing only where it ‘improves or maintains environmental outcomes’. It was developed in the following steps: (1) operational requirements and resource constraints were defined. (2) Biodiversity surrogates and assessment techniques that matched these requirements and constraints were identified. (3) Sites were assessed locally, but also in the broader landscape, regional and national contexts. (4) Explicit rules and metrics were developed to facilitate transparent and consistent assessments. (5) These rules, metrics and the data that underpinned them were codified into a simple computer software tool. The tool did not permit clearing in vegetation communities or landscapes that were already over-cleared or listed as threatened, unless the vegetation was in ‘low condition’ (unlikely to persist in the long-term). Other native vegetation could be cleared if regional, landscape and site impacts could be offset. In the first year after the assessment methodology was implemented a net area of approximately 187 ha of native vegetation was approved for clearing with offsets. Most approvals (68%) were for proposals to clear native vegetation with a low likelihood of persistence under the existing land use (predominantly scattered trees among cultivation) and offset these impacts by improving the condition and likelihood of persistence of native vegetation in comparable ecosystems. Remaining approvals were for clearing relatively small areas (mean = 0.6 ha) of partially modified native vegetation. Proposals to offset the impacts of clearing substantially intact native vegetation or larger areas of partially modified native vegetation were generally assessed as unlikely to ‘improve or maintain environmental outcomes’. 相似文献