Reverse genetics approach to characterize a function of NADH-glutamate synthase1 in rice plants

Rice plants grown in anaerobic paddy soil prefer to use ammonium ion as an inorganic nitrogen source for their growth. The ammonium ions are assimilated by the coupled reaction of glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamate synthase (GOGAT). In rice, there is a small gene family for GOGAT: there are two NADH-dependent types and one ferredoxin (Fd)-dependent type. Fd-GOGAT is important in the re-assimilation of photorespiratorily generated ammonium ions in chloroplasts. Although cell-type and age-dependent expression of two NADH-GOGAT genes has been well characterized, metabolic function of individual gene product is not fully understood. Reverse genetics approach is a direct way to characterize functions of isoenzymes. We have isolated a knockout rice mutant lacking NADH-dependent glutamate synthase1 (NADH-GOGAT1) and our studies show that this isoenzyme is important for primary ammonium assimilation in roots at the seedling stage. NADH-GOGAT1 is also important in the development of active tiller number, when the mutant was grown in paddy field until the harvest. Expression of NADH-GOGAT2 and Fd-GOGAT in the mutant was identical with that in wild-type, suggesting that these GOGATs are not able to compensate for NADH-GOGAT1 function.     

Existence of two ferredoxin-glutamate synthases in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Isolation and insertional inactivation of gltB and gltS genes

The first two genes of ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT) from a prokaryotic organism, the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, were cloned in Escherichia coli. Partial sequencing of the cloned genomic DNA, of the 6.3 kb Hind III and 9.3 kb Cla I fragments, confirmed the existence of two different genes coding for glutamate synthases, named gltB and gltS. The gltB gene was completely sequenced and encodes for a polypeptide of 1550 amino acid residues (M _r 168 964). Comparative analysis of the gltB deduced amino acid sequence against other glutamate synthases shows a higher identity with the alfalfa NADH-GOGAT (55.2%) than with the corresponding Fd-GOGAT from the higher plants maize and spinach (about 43%), the red alga Antithamnnion sp. (42%) or with the NADPH-GOGAT of bacterial source, such as Escherichia coli (41%) and Azospirillum brasilense (45%). The detailed analysis of Synechocystis gltB deduced amino acid sequence shows strongly conserved regions that have been assigned to the 3Fe-4S cluster (CX₅CHX₃C), the FMN-binding domain and the glutamine-amide transferase domain. Insertional inactivation of gltB and gltS genes revealed that both genes code for ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthases which were nonessential for Synechocystis growth, as shown by the ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase activity and western-blot analysis of the mutant strains.     

Glutamate synthase is plastid-encoded in a red alga: implications for the evolution of glutamate synthases

An actively transcribed gene (glsF) encoding for ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT) was found on the plastid genome of the multicellular red alga Antithamnion sp. Fd-GOGAT is not plastid-encoded in chlorophytic plants, demonstrating that red algal plastid genomes encode for additional functions when compared to those known from green chloroplasts. Moreover, our results suggest that the plant Fd-GOGAT has an endosymbiotic origin. The same may not be true for NADPH-dependent GOGAT. In Antithamnion glsF is flanked upstream by cpcBA and downstream by psaC and is transcribed monocistronically. Implications of these results for the evolution of GOGAT enzymes and the plastid genome are discussed.     

Action of light,nitrate and ammonium on the levels of NADH- and ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthases in the cotyledons of mustard seedlings

In mustard (Sinapis alba L.) cotyledons, NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT, EC 1.4.1.14) is only detectable during early seedling development with a peak of enzyme activity occurring between 2 and 2.5 d after sowing. With the beginning of plastidogenesis at approximately 2 d after sowing, ferredoxindependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT, EC 1.4.7.1) appears while NADH-GOGAT drops to a very low level. The enzymes were separated by anion exchange chromatography. Both enzymes are stimulated by light operating through phytochrome. However, the extent of induction is much higher in the case of Fd-GOGAT than in the case of NADH-GOGAT. Moreover, NADH-GOGAT is inducible predominantly by red light pulses, while the light induction of Fd-GOGAT operates predominantly via the high irradiance response of phytochrome. The NADH-GOGAT level is strongly increased if mustard seedlings are grown in the presence of nitrate (15 mM KNO₃,15 mM NH₄NO₃) while the Fd-GOGAT level is only slightly affected by these treatments. No effect on NADH-GOGAT level was observed by growing the seedlings in the presence of ammonium (15 mM NH₄Cl) instead of water, whereas the level of Fd-GOGAT was considerably reduced when seedlings were grown in the presence of NH₄Cl. Inducibility of NADH-GOGAT by treatment with red light pulses or by transferring water-grown seedlings to NO ₃ ^- -containing medium follows a temporal pattern of competence. The very low Fd-GOGAT level in mustard seedlings grown under red light in the presence of the herbicide Norflurazon, which leads to photooxidative destruction of the plastids, indicates that the enzyme is located in the plastids. The NADH-GOGAT level is, in contrast, completely independent of plastid integrity which indicates that its location is cytosolic. It is concluded that NADH-GOGAT in the early seedling development is mainly concerned with metabolizing stored glutamine whereas Fd-GOGAT is involved in ammonium assimilation.Abbreviations and symbols c continuous - D darkness - Fd-GOGAT ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (EC 1.4.7.1) - FR far-red light (3.5 W·m^-2) - NADH-GOGAT NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (EC 1.4.1.14) - Pfr far-red absorbing form of phytochrome - Ptot total phytochrome - R red light (6.8 W· m^-2) - RG9-light long wavelength FR (10 W·m^-2, _RG9<0.01) - () Pfr/Ptot=wavelength-dependent photoequilibrium of the phytochrome system     

Tissue Distribution of Glutamate Synthase and Glutamine Synthetase in Rice Leaves : Occurrence of NADH-Dependent Glutamate Synthase Protein and Activity in the Unexpanded, Nongreen Leaf Blades

To further explore the function of NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (GOGAT), the tissue distribution of NADH-GOGAT protein and activity was investigated in rice (Oryza sativa L.) leaves. The distributions of ferredoxin (Fd)-dependent GOGAT, plastidic glutamine synthetase, and cytosolic glutamine synthetase proteins were also determined in the same tissues. High levels of NADH-GOGAT protein (33.1 μg protein/g fresh weight) and activity were detected in the 10th leaf blade before emergence. The unexpanded, nongreen portion of the 9th leaf blade contained more than 50% of the NADH-GOGAT protein and activity per gram fresh weight when compared with the 10th leaf. The expanding, green portion of the 9th leaf blade outside of the sheath contained a slightly lower abundance of NADH-GOGAT protein than the nongreen portion of the 9th blade on a fresh weight basis. The fully expanded leaf blades at positions lower than the 9th leaf had decreased NADH-GOGAT levels as a function of increasing age, and the oldest, 5th blade contained only 4% of the NADH-GOGAT protein compared with the youngest 10th leaf blade. Fd-GOGAT protein, on the other hand, was the major form of GOGAT in the green tissues, and the highest amount of Fd-GOGAT protein (111 μg protein/g fresh weight) was detected in the 7th leaf blade. In the nongreen 10th leaf blade, the content of Fd-GOGAT protein was approximately 7% of that found in the 7th leaf blade. In addition, the content of NADH-GOGAT protein in the 10th leaf blade was about 4 times higher than that of Fd-GOGAT protein. The content of plastidic glutamine synthetase polypeptide was also the highest in the 7th leaf blade (429 μg/g fresh weight) and lowest in nongreen blades and sheaths. On the other hand, the relative abundance of the cytosolic glutamine synthetase polypeptide was the highest in the oldest leaf blade, decreasing to 10 to 20% of that value in young, nongreen leaves. These results suggest that NADH-GOGAT is important for the synthesis of glutamate from the glutamine that is transported from senescing source tissues through the phloem in the nongreen sink tissues in rice leaves.     

Cell type distinct accumulations of mRNA and protein for NADH-dependent glutamate synthase in rice roots in response to the supply of NH4+

Transient and NH₄⁺-inducible accumulation of the mRNA for NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT; EC 1.4.1.14) in the roots of rice seedlings was analyzed in situ to identify the cell types responsible for the induction. The mRNA was detected specifically in sclerenchyma cells (the third cell-layer from the root surface), and the maximal accumulation was seen at 3–6 h following the supply of NH₄⁺ ions. Expression of the NADH-GOGAT gene in sclerenchyma cells was also confirmed using transgenic rice plants expressing GUS reporter gene under the control of rice NADH-GOGAT promoter. On the other hand, clear signals for the NADH-GOGAT protein were detected in epidermial cells and exodermal cells (the first and second cell layers from the root surface) at 12 h, following the supply of NH₄⁺ ions. The distinct localization of mRNA and protein for NADH-GOGAT suggests that either the mRNA or the translated protein in the sclerenchyma cells is migrated to the root surface. In contrast to NADH-GOGAT protein, Fd-GOGAT (EC 1.4.7.1) protein was detected in sclerenchyma cells, cortex cells, and stele in the rice roots. The distinct localization of the two GOGAT species indicates that they have different roles in the nitrogen metabolism in rice roots.     

The Role of Glutamine Oxoglutarate Aminotransferase and Glutamate Dehydrogenase in Nitrogen Metabolism in Mycobacterium bovis BCG

Recent evidence suggests that the regulation of intracellular glutamate levels could play an important role in the ability of pathogenic slow-growing mycobacteria to grow in vivo. However, little is known about the in vitro requirement for the enzymes which catalyse glutamate production and degradation in the slow-growing mycobacteria, namely; glutamine oxoglutarate aminotransferase (GOGAT) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), respectively. We report that allelic replacement of the Mycobacterium bovis BCG gltBD-operon encoding for the large (gltB) and small (gltD) subunits of GOGAT with a hygromycin resistance cassette resulted in glutamate auxotrophy and that deletion of the GDH encoding-gene (gdh) led to a marked growth deficiency in the presence of L-glutamate as a sole nitrogen source as well as reduction in growth when cultured in an excess of L-asparagine.     

Tissue distribution and developmental patterns of NADH-dependent and ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase activities in maize (Zea mays) kernels

Both NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT, EC 1.4.1.14) and ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT, EC 1.4.7.1) activities were present in the endosperm, embryo, pedicel and pericarp of maize ( Zea mays L. var. W64A × A619) kernels. The endosperm contained the highest proportions of each activity on a per tissue basis. In the endosperm, NADH-GOGAT and Fd-GOGAT activities increased 12- and 2.5-fold, respectively, during early zein accumulation. NADH-GOGAT and Fd-GOGAT activities were expressed in the upper, middle and lower portions of the endosperm in a manner that paralleled but preceded zein accumulation. Maize endosperm NADH-GOGAT was purified 159-fold using ammonium sulfate fractionation, anion exchange chromatography and dye-ligand chromatography. Apparent K_m values for glutamine, α-ketoglutarate and NADH were 850, 19 and 1 μM, respectively. The results are consistent with endosperm GOGAT functioning to redistribute nitrogen from glutamine, the predominant nitrogenous compound delivered to the endosperm, into other amino acids needed for storage protein synthesis.     

Characterization of Ferredoxin-Dependent Glutamine-Oxoglutarate Amidotransferase (Fd-GOGAT) Genes and Their Relationship with Grain Protein Content QTL in Wheat

Background

In higher plants, inorganic nitrogen is assimilated via the glutamate synthase cycle or GS-GOGAT pathway. GOGAT enzyme occurs in two distinct forms that use NADH (NADH-GOGAT) or Fd (Fd-GOGAT) as electron carriers. The goal of the present study was to characterize wheat Fd-GOGAT genes and to assess the linkage with grain protein content (GPC), an important quantitative trait controlled by multiple genes.

Results

We report the complete genomic sequences of the three homoeologous A, B and D Fd-GOGAT genes from hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum) and their localization and characterization. The gene is comprised of 33 exons and 32 introns for all the three homoeologues genes. The three genes show the same exon/intron number and size, with the only exception of a series of indels in intronic regions. The partial sequence of the Fd-GOGAT gene located on A genome was determined in two durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) cvs Ciccio and Svevo, characterized by different grain protein content. Genomic differences allowed the gene mapping in the centromeric region of chromosome 2A. QTL analysis was conducted in the Svevo×Ciccio RIL mapping population, previously evaluated in 5 different environments. The study co-localized the Fd-GOGAT-A gene with the marker GWM-339, identifying a significant major QTL for GPC.

Conclusions

The wheat Fd-GOGAT genes are highly conserved; both among the three homoeologous hexaploid wheat genes and in comparison with other plants. In durum wheat, an association was shown between the Fd-GOGAT allele of cv Svevo with increasing GPC - potentially useful in breeding programs.     

Purification and Characterization of NADH-Glutamate Synthase from Alfalfa Root Nodules

Glutamate synthase (GOGAT), a key enzyme in the pathway for the assimilation of symbiotically fixed dinitrogen (N₂) into amino acids in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) root nodules, was purified and used to produce high titer polyclonal antibodies. Purification resulted in a 208-fold increase in specific activity to 13 micromole per minute per milligram of protein and an activity yield of 37%. Further purification to near homogeneity was achieved by fast protein liquid chromatography, but with substantial loss of activity. Enzymic activity was highly labile, losing 3% per hour even when substrates, stabilizers, and reducing agents were included in buffers. However, activity could be partially stabilized for up to 1 month by storing GOGAT at −80°C in 50% glycerol. The subunit molecular weight of GOGAT was estimated at 200 ± 7 kilodaltons with a native molecular weight of 235 ± 16 kilodaltons, which suggested that GOGAT is a monomer of unusually high molecular weight. The pl was estimated to be 6.6. The K_m values for glutamine, α-ketoglutarate, and NADH were 466, 33, and 4.2 micromolar, respectively. Antibodies were produced to NADH-GOGAT. Specificity of the antibodies was shown by immunotitration of GOGAT activity. Alfalfa nodule NADH-GOGAT antibodies cross-reacted with polypeptides of a similar molecular weight in a number of legume species. Western blots probed with anti-GOGAT showed that the high GOGAT activity of nodules as compared to roots was associated with increased levels of GOGAT polypeptides. Nodule NADH-GOGAT appeared to be highly expressed in effective nodules and little if any in other organs.     

Changes in the Content of Two Glutamate Synthase Proteins in Spikelets of Rice (Oryza sativa) Plants during Ripening

Nitrogen accumulation in the apical spikelets on the primary branches of the main stem of rice plants have been studied during the ripening process (0-35 d after flowering). The level of NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (GOGAT) protein and activity increased 4- and 6-fold, respectively, in the first 15 d after flowering. Maximum levels of NADH-GOGAT were found at that time when the spikelets had just begun to increase in dry weight and to accumulate storage proteins. Subsequently, both the level of NADH-GOGAT protein and its activity in spikelets declined rapidly. Although changes in ferredoxin (Fd)-dependent GOGAT paralleled changes in NADH-GOGAT, the relative abundance of NADH-GOGAT protein in the spikelets was about 3 times higher than that of Fd-GOGAT from 5 to 15 d after flowering. When the chaff (lemma and palea) was separated from the spikelets 10 d after the flowering, 16% of the NADH-GOGAT protein was found in the chaff and 84% in the young grain tissues (endosperm, testae, aleurone tissues, and embryo). On the other hand, Fd-GOGAT protein was distributed 52% in the chaff and 48% in the young grain tissues in spikelets of the same age. Activity of NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase, which may generate the 2-oxoglutarate required for the GOGAT reactions, was much higher than that of total GOGAT activities on a spikelet basis during the ripening process. These results suggest that in rice plants NADH-GOGAT is responsible for the synthesis of glutamate from the glutamine that is transported from senescing tissues to the spikelets.     

Functional Characterization of Key Enzymes involved in l-Glutamate Synthesis and Degradation in the Thermotolerant and Methylotrophic Bacterium Bacillus methanolicus

Bacillus methanolicus wild-type strain MGA3 secretes 59 g/liter⁻¹ of l-glutamate in fed-batch methanol cultivations at 50°C. We recently sequenced the MGA3 genome, and we here characterize key enzymes involved in l-glutamate synthesis and degradation. One glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) that is encoded by yweB and two glutamate synthases (GOGATs) that are encoded by the gltAB operon and by gltA2 were found, in contrast to Bacillus subtilis, which has two different GDHs and only one GOGAT. B. methanolicus has a glutamine synthetase (GS) that is encoded by glnA and a 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH) that is encoded by the odhAB operon. The yweB, gltA, gltB, and gltA2 gene products were purified and characterized biochemically in vitro. YweB has a low K_m value for ammonium (10 mM) and a high K_m value for l-glutamate (250 mM), and the V_max value is 7-fold higher for l-glutamate synthesis than for the degradation reaction. GltA and GltA2 displayed similar K_m values (1 to 1.4 mM) and V_max values (4 U/mg) for both l-glutamate and 2-oxoglutarate as the substrates, and GltB had no effect on the catalytic activities of these enzymes in vitro. Complementation assays indicated that GltA and not GltA2 is dependent on GltB for GOGAT activity in vivo. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the presence of two active GOGATs in a bacterium. In vivo experiments indicated that OGDH activity and, to some degree, GOGAT activity play important roles in regulating l-glutamate production in this organism.     

Arabidopsis glt1-T mutant defines a role for NADH-GOGAT in the non-photorespiratory ammonium assimilatory pathway

The physiological role of the NADH-dependent glutamine-2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (NADH-GOGAT) enzyme was addressed in Arabidopsis using gene expression analysis and by the characterization of a knock-out T-DNA insertion mutant (glt1-T) in the single NADH-GOGAT GLT1 gene. The NADH-GOGAT GLT1 mRNA is expressed at higher levels in roots than in leaves. This expression pattern contrasts with GLU1, the major gene encoding Fd-GOGAT, which is most highly expressed in leaves and is involved in photorespiration. These distinct organ-specific expression patterns suggested a non-redundant physiological role for the NADH-GOGAT and Fd-GOGAT gene products. To test the in vivo function of NADH-GOGAT, we conducted molecular and physiological analysis of the glt1-T mutant, which is null for NADH-GOGAT, as judged by mRNA level and enzyme activity. Metabolic analysis showed that the glt1-T mutant has a specific defect in growth and glutamate biosynthesis when photorespiration was repressed by 1% CO2. Under these conditions, the glt1-T mutant displayed a 20% decrease in growth and a dramatic 70% reduction in glutamate levels. Herein, we discuss the significance of NADH-GOGAT in non-photorespiratory ammonium assimilation and in glutamate synthesis required for plant development.     

Expression of NADH-dependent glutamate synthase protein in the epidermis and exodermis of rice roots in response to the supply of ammonium ions

The mRNA and protein for NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT; EC 1.4.1.14) in root tips of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Sasanishiki) plants increases dramatically within 12 h of supplying a␣low concentration (>0.05 mM) of ammonium ions (T.␣Yamaya et al., 1995, Plant Cell Physiol 36: 1197–1204). To identify the specific cells which are responsible for this rapid increase, the cellular localization of NADH-GOGAT protein was investigated immunocytologically with an affinity-purified anti-NADH-GOGAT immunoglobulin G. When root tips (>1 mm) of rice seedlings which had been grown for 26 d in water were immuno-stained, signals for the NADH-GOGAT protein were detected in the central cylinder, in the apical meristem, and in the primordia of the secondary roots. Signals for ferredoxin-dependent GOGAT (Fd-GOGAT; EC 1.4.7.1) protein were also seen in the same three areas. When the roots were supplied with 1 mM ammonium ions for 24 h, there were strong signals for the NADH-GOGAT protein in two cell layers of the root surface, i.e. epidermis and exodermis, in addition to the cells giving signals in the absence of ammonium ions. The supply of ammonium ions was less effective on the profile of signals for Fd-GOGAT. Although the supply of ammonium ions had less effect on the expression of cytosolic glutamine synthetase (GS; EC 6.3.1.2), this enzyme was also found to be located in the epidermis and exodermis, as well as in the central cylinder and cortex. The results indicate that NADH-GOGAT, coupled to the cytosolic GS reaction, is probably important for the assimilation of ammonium ions in the two cell layers of the root surface. Received: 21 June 1997 / Accepted: 11 September 1997     

Effect of photon flux density on inorganic carbon accumulation and net CO2 exchange in a high-CO2-requiring mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The effect of photon flux density on inorganic carbon accumulation and photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation was determined by CO₂ exchange studies at three, limiting CO₂ concentrations with a ca-1 mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardiii. This mutant accumulates a large internal inorganic carbon pool in the light which apparently is unavailable for photosynthetic assimilation. Although steady-state photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation did not respond to the varying photon flux densities because of CO₂ limitation, components of inorganic-carbon accumulation were not clearly light saturated even at 1100 mol photons m^-2 s^-1, indicating a substantial energy requirement for inorganic carbon transport and accumulation. Steady-state photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation responded to external CO₂ concentrations but not to changing internal inorganic carbon concentrations, confirming that diffusion of CO₂ into the cells supplies most of the CO₂ for photosynthetic assimilation and that the internal inorganic carbon pool is essentially unavailable for photosynthetic assimilation. The estimated concentration of the internal inorganic carbon pool was found to be relatively insensitive to the external CO₂ concentration over the small range tested, as would be expected if the concentration of this pool is limited by the internal to external inorganic carbon gradient. An attempt to use this CO₂ exchange method to determine whether inorganic carbon accumulation and photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation compete for energy at low photon flux densities proved inconclusive.     

Rre37 stimulates accumulation of 2-oxoglutarate and glycogen under nitrogen starvation in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Rre37 (sll1330) in a cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 acts as a regulatory protein for sugar catabolic genes during nitrogen starvation. Low glycogen accumulation in Δrre37 was due to low expression of glycogen anabolic genes. In addition to low 2-oxoglutarate accumulation, normal upregulated expression of genes encoding glutamate synthases (gltD and gltB) as well as accumulation of metabolites in glycolysis (fructose-6-phosphate, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (oxaloacetate, fumarate, succinate, and aconitate) were abolished by rre37 knockout. Rre37 regulates 2-oxoglutarate accumulation, glycogen accumulation through expression of glycogen anabolic genes, and TCA cycle metabolites accumulation.     

Potential metabolic mechanisms for inhibited chloroplast nitrogen assimilation under high CO2

Improving photosynthesis is considered a major and feasible option to dramatically increase crop yield potential. Increased atmospheric CO₂ concentration often stimulates both photosynthesis and crop yield, but decreases protein content in the main C₃ cereal crops. This decreased protein content in crops constrains the benefits of elevated CO₂ on crop yield and affects their nutritional value for humans. To support studies of photosynthetic nitrogen assimilation and its complex interaction with photosynthetic carbon metabolism for crop improvement, we developed a dynamic systems model of plant primary metabolism, which includes the Calvin–Benson cycle, the photorespiration pathway, starch synthesis, glycolysis–gluconeogenesis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and chloroplastic nitrogen assimilation. This model successfully captures responses of net photosynthetic CO₂ uptake rate (A), respiration rate, and nitrogen assimilation rate to different irradiance and CO₂ levels. We then used this model to predict inhibition of nitrogen assimilation under elevated CO₂. The potential mechanisms underlying inhibited nitrogen assimilation under elevated CO₂ were further explored with this model. Simulations suggest that enhancing the supply of α-ketoglutarate is a potential strategy to maintain high rates of nitrogen assimilation under elevated CO₂. This model can be used as a heuristic tool to support research on interactions between photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen assimilation. It also provides a basic framework to support the design and engineering of C₃ plant primary metabolism for enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and nitrogen assimilation in the coming high-CO₂ world.

Simulations with a dynamic systems model of C₃ primary metabolism show that the decreased supply of reducing equivalent and 2-oxoglutaric acid cause decreased nitrogen assimilation under elevated CO₂.