Woodland history of northern Greece from the mid Holocene to recent time based on evidence from peat pollen profiles

The woodland history of the northern mountainous parts of Greece is considered in the context of pollen profiles from bogs in Rhodopes, Lailias-Vrontou, Paiko, Voras and Pieria. In the time period covered by these diagrams (only those from Voras and Lailias extend back to the 7th millennium B.P.) the overall trends in the woodland history at the particular sites are comparable but there are also substantial differences that are attributed to the effects of human influence which varied in time, intensify and extent. The earlier phase, which corresponds to the Atlantic period of Firbas, is characterized by mixed deciduous woodlands with Quercus or Tilia the main components. This is followed by the phase (Subboreal) in which coniferous woodlands, which consisted of Abies and Pinus, dominated. In this time, Fagus gradually expanded. In the final phase (Subatlantic), Abies becomes more or less extinct and Fagus has a dominant role. These developments broadly correspond with those recorded in pollen profiles from Central Europe.     

Mid to late Holocene vegetation and land use history in the Weald of south-eastern England: multiple pollen profiles from the Rye area

The High Weald is an unusually well-wooded area in southern England. A high proportion of this woodland is ancient, being formerly exploited as seasonal pasture and coppice. Multiple pollen profiles from the Rye area have been used to elucidate the origins of this cultural landscape. By combining sites with small and large pollen source areas, both local and regional patterns of vegetation change have been determined. The mid-Holocene Tilia-dominated woodlands were subjected to temporary clearance as early as the Neolithic. This woodland was more extensively exploited over a ca. 700 year period from the beginning of the Bronze Age. The main elements of the modern landscape (woodland, pasture and limited cultivation) can be traced back to a more intensive phase of human activity, which commenced in the late Bronze Age. A regional increase in Fagus sylvatica pollen ca. 750 B.C. probably reflects the use of the Wealden woods for pasturage. There is no palynological evidence that the fuel demands of the Roman iron industry resulted in widespread woodland destruction. The early Anglo-Saxon period appears to have been one of land-use continuity, with a second increase in Fagus pollen at ca. A.D. 700 corresponding to historical evidence for the presence of wood-pastures in the Weald.     

Holocene vegetation and land-use history in the environs of Lake Kahala, northern Estonia

Pollen profiles, based cores taken in Lake Kahala and from the adjoining mire, were used to establish general vegetation history and to reconstruct the extent and types of land-use over most of the Holocene. Modern pollen deposition was studied using moss polsters and the results were used in the interpretation of the fossil pollen data in terms of former land-use practices. The modern-day samples are from settlements, hay meadow and pasture, and overgrown pasture. Indications of human activity can be traced back to the Stone Age. At ca. 6400 cal. B.C., the first indications of possible woodland utilisation by humans are recorded. This may have involved grazing within the forests. From 4200 cal. B.C. onwards, animal husbandry with changing intensity was practised. Arable farming, involving cereals, was introduced to the area at ca. 1800 cal. B.C., but it was only at ca. 500 cal. B.C. that it assumed an important role in the farming economy.Secale cereale (rye) was introduced during the Roman Iron Age, intensive rye cultivation started at the end of the Iron Age, at ca. cal. A.D. 800. Ever increasing farming pressures triggered the formation of openalvars. Open landscape similar to that of today has persisted, with minor forest regeneration phases, since at least 500 cal. B.C.     

Late-glacial and Holocene woodland dynamics and land-use history of the Lower Oder valley, north-eastern Germany, based on two, AMS14C-dated, pollen profiles

High-resolution Holocene pollen profiles from lakes Großer Krebssee and Felchowsee, in the Lower Oder valley, north-eastern Germany, are presented. The Großer Krebssee profile includes a Late-glacial sequence. These investigations have been carried out in the context of a programme of archaeological excavation. AMS radiocarbon dates (26 in all) based on pollen concentrates have been used to provide a chronology for the pollen records. Holocene forest history and human impact are reconstructed for contrasting landscapes, namely, the Neuenhagener Oderinsel in the Lower Oderbruch (Großer Krebssee profile) and the more fertile Uckermärker Hügelland (Felchowsee profile) that lies immediately to the north. Both landscapes were glaciated during the Pomeranian stage of the Weichselian. New information on the spread of trees, includingTilia, Fagus and Carpinus, at both regional and local level, is presented. Five major phases of intensive human activity are recognised, the most intensive activity of the prehistoric period occurring in the Neolithic (Großer Krebssee profile). Differences between the records is explained in terms of local habitat, especially edaphic conditions, settlement history and also the pollen source area, the profile from the much larger Felchowsee lake providing a record of environmental change that is more regional in character.     

Towards the vegetation and settlement history of the southern Dobrudza coastal region, north-eastern Bulgaria: A pollen diagram from Lake Durankulak

Palynological investigation and radiocarbon dating of a 6-m core from lake Durankulak, north-eastern Bulgaria, enables vegetation development and human occupation from ca. 5500–5300 cal. B.C. onwards to be traced. Steppe vegetation that included with groves of deciduous trees asQuercus, Ulmus, Carpinus belulus andCorylus changed to a forest-steppe after 4000 cal. B.C. The archaeopalynological record indicates three distinct phases of human activity as follows: (1) 5300–4200 cal. B.C. (late Neolithic and Eneolithic) during which farming, that included a substantial arable component, was pursued, (2) 3500–3000 cal. B.C. (transition to early Bronze Age) when stock rearing appears to have dominated, and (3) after 1300 cal. B.C. (late Bronze Age) when arable farming again assumed importance. The palynological data correlate well with the rich archaeological record for human settlement that is available for the region from late Neolithic times onwards.     

A new contribution to the Holocene vegetation history of the West African Sahel: pollen from Oursi,Burkina Faso and charcoal from three sites in northeast Nigeria

A pollen diagram from Oursi in Burkina Faso is compared with anthracological (charcoal analysis) results from three sites in northeast Nigeria (Konduga, Gajiganna, Lantewa). The present-day vegetation at all four sites is Sahelian or Sahelo-Sudanian and under heavy human impact. At Oursi, a closed grassland with only few trees and almost no Sudanian elements can be reconstructed for the middle Holocene. At the Nigerian sites, on the other hand, Sudanian woody plants were present during this period. We assume that the Sahel was not a uniform zone during the middle Holocene but rather a mosaic of different vegetation types according to local site conditions. In the light of these results, a simple model of latitudinally shifting vegetation zones is not applicable. Around 3000 B.P. the closed grassland at Oursi was opened by agro-pastoral activities, and at Gajiganna, plants characteristic of pasture lands can be directly related with the presence of cattle. Human impact seems to have been the dominant factor in the vegetation history of the Sahel from 3000 B.P. until today, masking possible effects of climatic change.     

Holocene forest dynamics and human impact in southeastern Estonia

Litho-, chrono- and biostratigraphical methods were applied in the examination of a 9.9 m thick sequence of laminated sediments in Verijärv, a lake in southeast Estonia. The vegetation history, which covers at least the time from 10300 cal b.p. to the present, was inferred from the core, which was taken from the deepest part of the lake and correlated with the studied and dated pollen diagrams nearby. Reconstruction of the past vegetation dynamics is based on pollen percentage, accumulation rate and human impact diagrams. During the Holocene two main shifts in vegetation dynamics occurred, the first one at about 7700 cal b.p. when the pine-birch forest was replaced by deciduous mixed forest, and the second at about 3200 cal b.p. marked by the regeneration of pine-birch-spruce forest. A catastrophic forest fire at about 3450 cal b.p. opened up the landscape and gave rise to erosion and the sedimentation of a thick clayey layer. The steep decline in the Alnus curve between 1500–1650 cal b.p. coincides with the start of the continuous Secale curve and evidence of extensive land-use.     

Middle Holocene vegetation and human impact in central Sudan: charcoal from the neolithic site at Kadero

Charcoal recovered from middens and graves in the neolithic site of Kadero, north of Khartoum, Sudan was analysed. The site lies within the semi-desert vegetation zone at present. During the occupation period (5960-5030 uncal B.P.), a scrub and thorn savanna grew around the site. It is further suggested that the vegetation during the neolithic period at Kadero was already under strong human impact through controlled fires, felling and grazing.     

Studies on the vegetation history of Lake Varna region,northern Black Sea coastal area of Bulgaria

On the basis of pollen analytical investigations of two cores from Lake Varna and Lake Beloslav, the vegetation history of the Lake Varna region is traced back to the beginning of the 6th millennium B.C. A two-fold zoning system is used whereby the pollen diagrams are divided into pollen zones, based on tree migration patterns, and settlement periods. Pollen zone 1 is characterised by the absence of Carpinus betulus and Fagus sylvatica. The spread of hornbeam started at ca. 6500 B.C. (pollen zone 2) and beech at ca. 6200 B.C. (pollen zone 3), the latter being the last tree to spread into the region and considerably enrich the forests of the study area. Of the many pollen taxa representing plants that are favoured by open habitats and hence potentially indicative of human impact, only a few taxa are regarded as reliable indicators of human activity. These include above all Triticum-type, and also Secale and to a certain extent Plantago lanceolata, Rumex and Polygonum aviculare. The spatial pattern of settlements is somewhat different in the areas represented by the two profiles. At both sites the first period of settlement occurred during the 6th millennium B.C. (early Neolithic). After the Neolithic period, the main settlement periods of the Eneolithic and the Early and Middle Bronze Age are recorded. On the other hand, land-use history during the Greek and Roman periods is poorly recorded. Studies on the stratigraphy, diatoms and molluscs indicate that the sixth Black Sea transgression (6500–5800 B.C.), which reached –10 m, had considerable influence on the limnological environment.     

The Massaciuccoli Holocene pollen sequence and the vegetation history of the coastal plains by the Mar Ligure (Tuscany and Liguria,Italy)

A 90 m deep core from the Massaciuccoli lake basin (Tuscany, Italy) offers new material for improving the knowledge of the Holocene vegetation history in the coastal plains in Tuscany and Liguria bordering the Mar Ligure (Ligurian sea). In this paper, an assessment of the upper part of the core is presented. During the Holocene, the area was covered by woodlands whose composition changed in time. Numerous oscillations of the tree taxa were recorded which can probably be connected to sea level variations that had a strong influence on the depth of the water table. Human impact is evident particularly at ca. 4200–2500 b.p. when traces of opening of the woodland accompanied by noticeable pollen percentages of Vitis could suggest an early agricultural practice favouring this native plant. The new data have been integrated with previous palaeobotanical and archaeobotanical research. The occurrence of coastal wetlands has been shown. Throughout the Holocene, Mediterranean evergreen vegetation is generally poorly represented; it becomes widespread only in the late Holocene, suggesting that its establishment was probably favoured by the management practices in the coastal plains, particularly land reclamations, starting from the Roman period.     

Vegetation history and lake-level changes from the Younger Dryas to the present in Eastern Pyrenees (France): pollen, plant macrofossils and lithostratigraphy from Lake Racou (2000 m a.s.l.)

A multi-proxy palaeoecological investigation including pollen, plant macrofossil, radiocarbon and sedimentological analyses, was performed on a small mountain lake in the Eastern Pyrenees. This has allowed the reconstruction of: (1) the vegetation history of the area based on five pollen diagrams and eight AMS¹⁴C dates and (2) the past lake-level changes, based on plant macrofossil, lithological and pollen analysis of two stratigraphical transects correlated by pollen analysis. The palaeolake may have appeared before the Younger Dryas; the lake-level was low and the vegetation dominated by cold steppic grasslands. The lake-level rose to its highest level during the Holocene in the Middle Atlantic (at ca. 5060±45 b.p.). Postglacial forests (Quercetum mixtum and Abieto-Fagetum) developed progressively in the lower part of the valley, while dense Pinus uncinata forests rapidly invaded the surroundings of the mire and remained the dominant local vegetation until present. The observed lowering of the lake levels during the Late Atlantic and the Subboreal (from 5060 ± B.P. to 3590±40 b.p.) was related to the overgrowth of the mire. The first obvious indications of anthropogenic disturbances of the vegetation are recorded at the Atlantic/Subboreal boundary as a reduction in the forest component, which has accelerated during the last two millennia.     

Late Holocene pollen records from the Segermes valley,Ne Tunisia

Palynological investigations in the Segermes valley in northeastern Tunisia point to a vegetation with very few, if any, trees during the late Holocene. Various shrubs formed the woody elements in the area, and herbs, Asteraceae in particular, and grasses were frequent. Changes in the vegetational composition through time may have been relatively moderate. It is possible that some of the differences between pollen spectra at the localities studied represent differences between these localities rather than general changes through time. The environment during the Roman period does not seem to differ significantly from preceding and succeding periods; however, the Romans may have introduced the cultivation of olives in the area.     

The later Holocene history of vegetation, land-use and settlements around the Ahlequellmoor in the Solling area, Germany

A pollen diagram from the Ahlequellmoor in the Solling area shows the history of vegetation and settlement over the last 7,800 years. In the early Atlantic period mixed deciduous forest with mainly Tilia together with Ulmus and Quercus grew in the area. In the late Atlantic period Quercus became most abundant. Fagus spread in the Sub-boreal period at about 2700 B.C. Since ca. 900 B.C. the Solling was covered by beech forests with some oak. In prehistoric times woodland grazing is indicated. Only in Medieval times are two settlements in the vicinity of the Ahlequellmoor reflected in the pollen diagram. The earlier one is dated to about A.D. 750–1020, and may be connected with the former Monastery of Hethis, which is thought to have existed close to the fen from A.D. 815 to 822. The second Medieval settlement dates to the 11th–12th century. The large-scale woodland destruction of late Medieval and modern times is not clearly visible. The silvicultural measures of the last 200 years are reflected by increasing values of spruce and grassland taxa.     

A palynological investigation of Holocene vegetation change in Torres Strait, seasonal tropics of northern Australia

The islands of Torres Strait occupy a shallow area of submerged continental shelf narrowly separating Cape York Peninsula, Australia, from New Guinea. The human history of Torres Strait is unique with respect to mainland northern Australia. Island vegetation, however, exhibits a strong affinity with the environments of the western lowlands regions of Cape York Peninsula and with the vegetation of seasonal tropical Australia in general. Cape York Peninsula is both climatically and biologically diverse, yet few pollen studies have been carried out in its seasonally tropical environments. A summary presentation of palynological results, tracing the nature of vegetation change in Torres Strait, offers a possible framework for vegetation changes in similar environments on mainland Australia and also provides an opportunity to explore the relationship between Quaternary change in humid-tropical Australian environments and their seasonal-tropical counterparts.Six pollen records from Torres Strait provide evidence of vegetation change and fire history over approximately the last 8000 years. Near-shore sediments reveal a Holocene succession in vegetation incorporating lower-tidal mangrove, upper-tidal mangrove, saltmarsh and freshwater swamp communities. Extensive stable mangrove communities dominated coastal Torres Strait between approximately 6000 and 3000 radiocarbon years before present (yr BP). Inland, the strongest Myrtaceae-forest and rainforest representation occurs around the mid-Holocene only to be replaced by open sclerophyll woodlands, as tree density and diversity decline in the last 3000 years. The development of continuous island freshwater swamp conditions, at the coast and inland, is similarly restricted to the late Holocene (c. 2600 yr BP) and fire, as a prominent feature in the Torres Strait environment, is also a relatively recent phenomenon. Comparisons with regional mainland Australian palynological records reveal a degree of consistency in results from Torres Strait suggesting a similarity in late Quaternary trends through Australian humid and seasonally tropical environments. A number of differences, however, are also apparent, highlighting a degree of diversity which warrants further attention.     

Modern pollen deposition and its use in interpreting the occupation history of the island Hailuoto,Finland

The early vegetation history of the island Hailuoto, Finland, was investigated by means of pollen analysis. Pollen diagrams from three shallow peat profiles close to the postulated A.D. 1150 shoreline are interpreted with reference to modern pollen rain values, features indicative of occupation, routeways and cultivation being delimited. The differing settlement histories of the western and eastern parts of the present farmed area are distinguished and explained in terms of the changing coastline and availability of cultivable land. The historical evidence for changes in forest and farming conditions since the 16th century is also compared with the pollen evidence for the same period. Emphasis is placed on methodology and the development of investigation techniques applicable in sparsely settled boreal forest situations.     

The Holocene history of vegetation and settlement at the coastal site of Lake Voulkaria in Acarnania, western Greece

A palynological investigation of a Holocene profile from Lake Voulkaria, western Greece, was carried out as a contribution to the environmental history of the coastal area of northwestern Acarnania and the Classical city of Palairos. It shows that deciduous oaks dominated the natural vegetation of the area throughout the Holocene. Until ca. 7000 B.C. Pistacia occurred abundantly, while other evergreen woody taxa were rare. At ca. 6300 B.C. an expansion of Carpinus orientalis/Ostrya can be observed. Around ca. 5300 B.C. spreading of Erica indicates a change to a drier climate and/or first human impact. Since ca. 3500 B.C. an increase of evergreen shrubs now clearly indicates land-use. The foundation of the Classical city of Palairos led to a temporary expansion of Phillyrea maquis. Within this period, molluscs of brackish water indicate the use of the lake as a harbour after the construction of a connection to the sea. The deciduous Quercus woodland recovered when human impact decreased in the area, and lasted until modern times.     

Vegetational and environmental history during the Holocene in the Esbjerg area, west Jutland, Denmark

A pollen diagram from a site in the Esbjerg area, western Denmark, is used for reconstruction of the Holocene vegetational and environmental history there. During the Atlantic there was a parallel development of the landscape to that of other areas in Jylland (Jutland). From the late Neolithic onwards the development took its own course related to the approaching North Sea, which periodically inundated parts of the Esbjerg area. The record reflects landscape development in a formerly marine valley where sediments seem to be missing from parts of the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age. Consequently the landscape development during these times is only reflected in glimpses in the vegetation record, which shows gradually more open woodland and increasing human impact. During the late part of the Iron Age, Viking period and Middle Ages, the woodland was diverse in taxa but became increasingly open, finally reaching a stage during which there may have been too little wood even for daily use. At the same time the use of the land intensified. During the Sub-Atlantic, the Esbjerg area offered good natural resources with extensive grazing areas in the marine marshes in addition to good possibilities for farming and use of the woodland on higher ground, but devastating floods occurred.     

Similarities and dissimilarities,synchronisms and diachronisms in the Holocene vegetation history of the Balearic Islands and Sicily

In some continental and island sites in the western Mediterranean basin, the Holocene vegetation and climate dynamics seem to show the same patterns in time and space. Nevertheless, different synchronous scenarios have been proposed from other south European, North African and Near Eastern pollen records from around the Mediterranean basin. Striking similarities and synchronisms have been found between Sicily and the Balearic Islands. These islands, although under different bioclimatic influences, show similarities in the main trends of vegetation and climate dynamics during the Post-glacial. Lago di Pergusa is the only natural inland lake in Sicily and because of its geographical location, has a good potential sensitivity to the climatic changes of the Mediterranean basin. Likewise, coastal sediments from Minorca and Majorca, the Balearic Islands, have similar peculiarities. The present-day environmental situation, now that most of the natural vegetation in these islands has disappeared, has been brought about either by a climatic trend towards increasing aridity or an increase in human activities. It seems clear that prehistoric human people alone could not have caused all the environmental changes recorded in the last millennia in both places.     

Holocene climate and vegetation in the Milford drainage basin,Maine, U.S.A., and their implications for human history

A 9200 ¹⁴C year fossil pollen record from a small kettle lake in central Maine, northeast U.S.A., records the development of nearby upland vegetation throughout the Archaic, Ceramic, and Historic periods of human history. The Early Archaic period (9000 to 8000 B.P.) began as open woodland dominated by Picea, Populus, and Larix, which was replaced by Pinus forest. During the Middle Archaic (8000-6000 B.P.) Tsuga-dominated forest, which developed ca. 7400 B.P., was followed by Pinus forest (ca. 6400 B.P.). The Late Archaic (6000-3000 B.P.) was a period of great transition; Tsuga forest developed again ca. 5700 B.P., but was abruptly replaced by northern hardwood forest ca. 4700 B.P. That Late Archaic expansion of hardwoods would have provided better forage for beaver. Coincidentally, boreal wetland mammals such as beaver (Castor canadensis) and muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) increase in faunal assemblages of local archaeological sites, while remains of anadromous fish decrease. We postulate that the apparent increase in human populations throughout the region during the Late Archaic may be attributed to an increase in the resource base within both upland and wetland areas resulting from the development of hardwood forest in response to climatic cooling.