The role of AKT1 and autophagy in the protective effect of hydrogen sulphide against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice

Hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) exerts a protective effect in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, the exact mechanism of H 2S action remains largely unknown. This study was designed to investigate the role of the PtdIns3K-AKT1 pathways and autophagy in the protective effect of H 2S against hepatic I/R injury. Primary cultured mouse hepatocytes and livers with or without NaHS (a donor of H 2S) preconditioning were exposed to anoxia/reoxygenation (A/R) and I/R, respectively. In certain groups, they were also pretreated with LY294002 (AKT1-specific inhibitor), 3-methyladenine (3MA, autophagy inhibitor) or rapamycin (autophagy enhancer), alone or simultaneously. Cell viability, expression of P-AKT1, T-AKT1, LC3 and BECN1 were examined. The severity of liver injury was measured by the levels of serum aminotransferase and inflammatory cytokine, apoptosis and histological examination. GFP-LC3 redistribution and transmission electron microscopy were used to test the activity of autophagy. H 2S preconditioning activated PtdIns3K-AKT1 signaling in hepatocytes. LY294002 could abolish the AKT1 activation and attenuate the protective effect of H 2S on hepatocytes A/R and hepatic I/R injuries. H 2S suppressed hepatic autophagy in vitro and in vivo. Further reducing autophagy by 3MA also diminished the protective effect of H 2S, while rapamycin could reverse the autophagy inhibitory effect and enhance the protective effect of H 2S against hepatocytes A/R and hepatic I/R injuries, consequently. Taken together, H 2S protects against hepatocytic A/R and hepatic I/R injuries, at least in part, through AKT1 activation but not autophagy. An autophagy agonist could be applied to potentiate this hepatoprotective effect by reversing the autophagy inhibition of H 2S.     

The Role of miR-34a in the Hepatoprotective Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide on Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Young and Old Rats

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) can protect the liver against ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, it is unknown whether H₂S plays a role in the protection of hepatic I/R injury in both young and old patients. This study compared the protective effects of H₂S in a rat model (young and old animals) of I/R injury and the mechanism underlying its effects. Young and old rats were assessed following an injection of NaHS. NaHS alone reduced hepatic I/R injury in the young rats by activating the nuclear erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway, but it had little effect on the old rats. NaHS pretreatment decreased miR-34a expression in the hepatocytes of the young rats with hepatic I/R. Overexpresion of miR-34a decreased Nrf-2 and its downstream target expression, impairing the hepatoprotective effect of H₂S on the young rats. More importantly, downregulation of miR-34a expression increased Nrf-2 and the expression of its downstream targets, enhancing the effect of H₂S on hepatic I/R injury in the old rats. This study reveals the different effects of H₂S on hepatic I/R injury in young and old rats and sheds light on the involvement of H₂S in miR-34a modulation of the Nrf-2 pathway.     

Dual inhibition of autophagy and the AKT pathway in prostate cancer

Genetic inactivation of PTEN through either gene deletion or mutation is common in metastatic prostate cancer, leading to activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K-AKT) pathway, which is associated with poor clinical outcomes. The PI3K-AKT pathway plays a central role in various cellular processes supporting cell growth and survival of tumor cells. To date, therapeutic approaches to develop inhibitors targeting the PI3K-AKT pathway have failed in both pre-clinical and clinical trials. We showed that a novel AKT inhibitor, AZD5363, inhibits the AKT downstream pathway by reducing p-MTOR and p-RPS6KB/p70S6K. We specifically reported that AZD5363 monotherapy induces G2 growth arrest and autophagy, but fails to induce significant apoptosis in PC-3 and DU145 prostate cancer cell lines. Blocking autophagy using pharmacological inhibitors (3-methyladenine, chloroquine and bafilomycin A₁) or genetic inhibitors (siRNA targeting ATG3 and ATG7) enhances cell death induced by AZD5363 in these prostate cancer cells. Importantly, the combination of AZD5363 with chloroquine significantly reduces tumor volume compared with the control group, and compared with either drug alone in prostate tumor xenograft models. Taken together, these data demonstrate that AKT inhibitor AZD5363, synergizes with the lysosomotropic inhibitor of autophagy, chloroquine, to induce apoptosis and delay tumor progression in prostate cancer models that are resistant to monotherapy, with AZD5363 providing a new therapeutic approach potentially translatable to patients.     

Autophagy fosters myofibroblast differentiation through MTORC2 activation and downstream upregulation of CTGF

Recent evidence suggests that autophagy may favor fibrosis through enhanced differentiation of fibroblasts in myofibroblasts. Here, we sought to characterize the mediators and signaling pathways implicated in autophagy-induced myofibroblast differentiation. Fibroblasts, serum starved for up to 4 d, showed increased LC3-II/-I ratios and decreased SQSTM1/p62 levels. Autophagy was associated with acquisition of markers of myofibroblast differentiation including increased protein levels of ACTA2/αSMA (actin, α 2, smooth muscle, aorta), enhanced gene and protein levels of COL1A1 (collagen, type I, α 1) and COL3A1, and the formation of stress fibers. Inhibiting autophagy with 3 different class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) inhibitors or through ATG7 silencing prevented myofibroblast differentiation. Autophagic fibroblasts showed increased expression and secretion of CTGF (connective tissue growth factor), and CTGF silencing prevented myofibroblast differentiation. Phosphorylation of the MTORC1 target RPS6KB1/p70S6K kinase was abolished in starved fibroblasts. Phosphorylation of AKT at Ser473, a MTORC2 target, was reduced after initiation of starvation but was followed by spontaneous rephosphorylation after 2 d of starvation, suggesting the reactivation of MTORC2 with sustained autophagy. Inhibiting MTORC2 activation with long-term exposure to rapamycin or by silencing RICTOR, a central component of the MTORC2 complex abolished AKT rephosphorylation. Both RICTOR silencing and rapamycin treatment prevented CTGF and ACTA2 upregulation, demonstrating the central role of MTORC2 activation in CTGF induction and myofibroblast differentiation. Finally, inhibition of autophagy with PtdIns3K inhibitors or ATG7 silencing blocked AKT rephosphorylation. Collectively, these results identify autophagy as a novel activator of MTORC2 signaling leading to CTGF induction and myofibroblast differentiation.     

Hydrogen sulfide protects spinal cord and induces autophagy via miR-30c in a rat model of spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury

Background

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a novel gaseous mediator, has been recognized as an important neuromodulator and neuroprotective agent in the nervous system. The present study was undertaken to study the effects of exogenous H2S on ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury of spinal cord and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

The effects of exogenous H2S on I/R injury were examined by using assessment of hind motor function, spinal cord infarct zone by Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Autophagy was evaluated by expressions of Microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin-1 which were determined by using Quantitative Real-Time PCR and Western blotting, respectively.

Results

Compared to I/R injury groups, H₂S pretreatment had reduced spinal cord infarct zone, improved hind motor function in rats. Quantitative Real-Time PCR or Western blotting results showed that H2S pretreatment also downregulated miR-30c expression and upregulated Beclin-1 and LC3II expression in spinal cord. In vitro, miR-30c was showed to exert negative effect on Beclin-1 expression by targeting its 3’UTR in SY-SH-5Y cells treated with Oxygen, Glucose Deprivation (OGD). In rat model of I/R injury, pretreatment of pre-miR-30c or 3-MA (an inhibitor for autophagy) can abrogated spinal cord protective effect of H2S.

Conclusion

H2S protects spinal cord and induces autophagy via miR-30c in a rat model of spinal cord hemia-reperfusion injury.     

Autophagy fosters myofibroblast differentiation through MTORC2 activation and downstream upregulation of CTGF

Recent evidence suggests that autophagy may favor fibrosis through enhanced differentiation of fibroblasts in myofibroblasts. Here, we sought to characterize the mediators and signaling pathways implicated in autophagy-induced myofibroblast differentiation. Fibroblasts, serum starved for up to 4 d, showed increased LC3-II/-I ratios and decreased SQSTM1/p62 levels. Autophagy was associated with acquisition of markers of myofibroblast differentiation including increased protein levels of ACTA2/αSMA (actin, α 2, smooth muscle, aorta), enhanced gene and protein levels of COL1A1 (collagen, type I, α 1) and COL3A1, and the formation of stress fibers. Inhibiting autophagy with 3 different class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) inhibitors or through ATG7 silencing prevented myofibroblast differentiation. Autophagic fibroblasts showed increased expression and secretion of CTGF (connective tissue growth factor), and CTGF silencing prevented myofibroblast differentiation. Phosphorylation of the MTORC1 target RPS6KB1/p70S6K kinase was abolished in starved fibroblasts. Phosphorylation of AKT at Ser473, a MTORC2 target, was reduced after initiation of starvation but was followed by spontaneous rephosphorylation after 2 d of starvation, suggesting the reactivation of MTORC2 with sustained autophagy. Inhibiting MTORC2 activation with long-term exposure to rapamycin or by silencing RICTOR, a central component of the MTORC2 complex abolished AKT rephosphorylation. Both RICTOR silencing and rapamycin treatment prevented CTGF and ACTA2 upregulation, demonstrating the central role of MTORC2 activation in CTGF induction and myofibroblast differentiation. Finally, inhibition of autophagy with PtdIns3K inhibitors or ATG7 silencing blocked AKT rephosphorylation. Collectively, these results identify autophagy as a novel activator of MTORC2 signaling leading to CTGF induction and myofibroblast differentiation.     

Defining regulatory and phosphoinositide-binding sites in the human WIPI-1 β-propeller responsible for autophagosomal membrane localization downstream of mTORC1 inhibition

Background

Autophagy is a cytoprotective, lysosomal degradation system regulated upon induced phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns(3)P) generation by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase class III (PtdIns3KC3) downstream of mTORC1 inhibition. The human PtdIns(3)P-binding β-propeller protein WIPI-1 accumulates at the initiation site for autophagosome formation (phagophore), functions upstream of the Atg12 and LC3 conjugation systems, and localizes at both the inner and outer membrane of generated autophagosomes. In addition, to a minor degree WIPI-1 also binds PtdIns(3,5)P₂. By homology modelling we earlier identified 24 evolutionarily highly conserved amino acids that cluster at two opposite sites of the open Velcro arranged WIPI-1 β-propeller.

Results

By alanine scanning mutagenesis of 24 conserved residues in human WIPI-1 we define the PtdIns-binding site of human WIPI-1 to critically include S203, S205, G208, T209, R212, R226, R227, G228, S251, T255, H257. These amino acids confer PtdIns(3)P or PtdIns(3,5)P₂ binding. In general, WIPI-1 mutants unable to bind PtdIns(3)P/PtdIns(3,5)P₂ lost their potential to localize at autophagosomal membranes, but WIPI-1 mutants that retained PtdIns(3)P/PtdIns(3,5)P₂ binding localized at Atg12-positive phagophores upon mTORC1 inhibition. Both, downregulation of mTOR by siRNA or cellular PtdIns(3)P elevation upon PIKfyve inhibition by YM201636 significantly increased the localization of WIPI-1 at autophagosomal membranes. Further, we identified regulatory amino acids that influence the membrane recruitment of WIPI-1. Exceptional, WIPI-1 R110A localization at Atg12-positive membranes was independent of autophagy stimulation and insensitive to wortmannin. R112A and H185A mutants were unable to bind PtdIns(3)P/PtdIns(3,5)P₂ but localized at autophagosomal membranes, although in a significant reduced number of cells when compared to wild-type WIPI-1.

Conclusions

We identified amino acids of the WIPI-1 β-propeller that confer PtdIns(3)P or PtdIns(3,5)P₂ binding (S203, S205, G208, T209, R212, R226, R227, G228, S251, T255, H257), and that regulate the localization at autophagosomal membranes (R110, R112, H185) downstream of mTORC1 inhibition.

     

Impaired autophagy contributes to hepatocellular damage during ischemia/reperfusion: Heme oxygenase-1 as a possible regulator

Liver ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury is characterized by oxidative stress that is accompanied by alterations of the endogenous defensive system. Emerging evidence suggests a protective role for autophagy induced by multiple stressors including reactive oxygen species. Meanwhile, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has long been implicated in cytoprotection against oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, we investigated the impact of autophagy in the pathogenesis of liver I/R and its molecular mechanisms, particularly its linkage to HO-1. By using transmission electron microscopic analysis and biochemical autophagic flux assays with microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II, and beclin-1, representative autophagy markers, and p62, a selective substrate for autophagy, we found that reperfusion reduced autophagy both in the rat liver and in primary cultured hepatocytes. When autophagy was further inhibited with chloroquine or wortmannin, I/R-induced hepatocellular injury was aggravated. While livers that underwent I/R showed increased levels of mammalian target of rapamaycin and calpain 1 and 2, inhibition of calpain 1 and 2 induced an autophagic response in hepatocytes subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation. HO-1 increased autophagy, and HO-1 reduced I/R-induced calcium overload in hepatocytes and prevented calpain 2 activation both in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, these findings suggest that the impaired autophagy during liver I/R, which is mediated by calcium overload and calpain activation, contributes to hepatocellular damage and the HO-1 system protects the liver from I/R injury through enhancing autophagy.     

Protective effect of ozone treatment on the injury associated with hepatic ischemia-reperfusion: Antioxidant-prooxidant balance

The effects of ozone treatment on the injury associated to hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) was evaluated. Ozone treatment (1 mg/kg daily during 10 days by rectal insufflation) is shown to be protective as it attenuated the increases in transaminases (AST, ALT) and lactate levels observed after I/R. I/R leads to a decrease in endogenous antioxidant (SOD and glutathione) and an increase in reactive oxygen species (H₂O₂) with respect to the control group. However, ozone treatment results in a preservation (glutathione) or increase (SOD) in antioxidant defense and maintains H₂O₂ at levels comparable to those in the control group. The present study reports a protective effect of ozone treatment on the injury associated to hepatic I/R. The effectiveness of ozone could be related to its action on endogenous antioxidants and prooxidants balance in favour of antioxidants, thus attenuating oxidative stress.     

Participation of autophagy in renal ischemia/reperfusion injury

Renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is inevitable in transplantation, and it results in renal tubular epithelial cells undergoing cell death. We observed an increase in autophagosomes in the tubular epithelial cells of I/R-injured mouse models, and in biopsy specimens from human transplanted kidney. However, it remains unclear whether autophagy functions as a protective pathway, or contributes to I/R-induced cell death. Here, we employed the human renal proximal tubular epithelial cell line HK-2 in order to explore the role of autophagy under hypoxia (1% O₂) or activation of reactive oxygen species (500 μM H₂O₂). When compared to normoxic conditions, 48 h of hypoxia slightly increased LC3-labeled autophagic vacuoles and markedly increased LAMP2-labeled lysosomes. We observed similar changes in the mouse IR-injury model. We then assessed autophagic generation and degradation by inhibiting the downstream lysosomal degradation of autophagic vacuoles using lysosomal protease inhibitor. We found that autophagosomes increased markedly under hypoxia in the presence of lysosomal protease inhibitors, thus suggesting that hypoxia induces high turnover of autophagic generation and degradation. Furthermore, inhibition of autophagy significantly inhibited H₂O₂-induced cell death. In conclusion, high turnover of autophagy may lead to autophagic cell death during I/R injury.     

Curcumin induces autophagy to protect vascular endothelial cell survival from oxidative stress damage

Our study first proposed that curcumin could protect human endothelial cells from the damage caused by oxidative stress via autophagy. Furthermore, our results revealed that curcumin causes some novel cellular mechanisms that promote autophagy as a protective effect. Pretreatment with curcumin remarkably improves the survival of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) from H₂O₂-induced viability loss, which specifically evokes an autophagic response. Exposed to H₂O₂, curcumin-treated HUVECs upregulate the level of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II (LC3-II), the number of autophagosomes, and the degradation of p62. We show that this compound promotes BECN1 expression and inhibits the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K)-AKT-mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) signaling pathway. Curcumin can also reverse FOXO1 (a mediator of autophagy) nuclear localization along with causing an elevated level of cytoplasmic acetylation of FOXO1 and the interaction of acetylated FOXO1 and ATG7, under the circumstance of oxidative stress. Additionally, knockdown of FOXO1 by shRNA inhibits not only the protective effects that curcumin induced, but the autophagic process, from the quantity of LC3-II to the expression of RAB7. These results suggest that curcumin induces autophagy, indicating that curcumin has the potential for use as an autophagic-related antioxidant for prevention and treatment of oxidative stress. These data uncover a brand new protective mechanism involving FOXO1 as having a critical role in regulating autophagy in HUVECs, and suggest a novel role for curcumin in inducing a beneficial form of autophagy in HUVECs, which may be a potential multitargeted therapeutic avenue for the treatment of oxidative stress-related cardiovascular diseases.     

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ Agonist 15d-Prostaglandin J2 Mediates Neuronal Autophagy after Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) has recently emerged as potential therapeutic agents for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury because of anti-neuronal apoptotic actions. However, whether PPAR-γ activation mediates neuronal autophagy in such conditions remains unclear. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the role of PPAR-γ agonist 15-PGJ₂ on neuronal autophagy induced by I/R. The expression of autophagic-related protein in ischemic cortex such as LC3-II, Beclin 1, cathepsin-B and LAMP1 increased significantly after cerebral I/R injury. Furthermore, increased punctate LC3 labeling and cathepsin-B staining occurred in neurons. Treatment with PPAR-γ agonist 15d-PGJ₂ decreased not only autophagic-related protein expression in ischemic cortex, but also immunoreactivity of LC3 and cathepsin-B in neurons. Autophagic inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) decreased LC3-II levels, reduced the infarct volume, and mimicked some protective effect of 15d-PGJ₂ against cerebral I/R injury. These results indicate that PPAR-γ agonist 15d-PGJ₂ exerts neuroprotection by inhibiting neuronal autophagy after cerebral I/R injury. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying PPAR-γ agonist in mediating neuronal autophagy remain to be determined, neuronal autophagy may be a new target for PPAR-γ agonist treatment in cerebral I/R injury.     

Exogenous hydrogen sulfide protects fatty liver against ischemia–reperfusion injury by regulating endoplasmic reticulum stress‐induced autophagy in macrophage through mediating the class A scavenger receptor pathway in rats

Fatty liver disease is a disease manifested with excessive alcohol intake and obese. Importantly, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has been revealed to participate in the progression of fatty liver; however, the underlying mechanism has not been clearly elucidated yet. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of exogenous H₂S on fatty liver ischemia–reperfusion injury (IRI) through mediating class A scavenger receptor (SRA) pathway in rats. By determining endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)‐related factors, autophagy markers and apoptosis‐related factors in liver tissue and liver function, levels of oxidative stress, inflammatory factors, and hepatocyte apoptosis, the effects of H₂S on IRI‐induced autophagy, oxidative stress, and inflammation were all examined in rat model of fatty liver IRI. Results from obtained data showed that H₂S decreased the expression of SRA, Grp78, PERK, CHOP, and Caspase‐3, and increased that of LC3‐II/LC3‐I, in addition to alleviating the pathological changes of liver and reducing the levels of ALT, AST, LDH TBARS, and MDA. Moreover, H₂S decreased the levels of oxidative stress, the expression of pro‐inflammatory factors including tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1, and interleukin 6, and the apoptosis of hepatocytes. Our findings suggested exogenous H₂S could reduce ERS by mediating the SRA pathway and protect liver function by inducing autophagy, and protect against IRI by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation.     

Dexmedetomidine alleviates hepatic ischaemia-reperfusion injury via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2-NLRP3 pathway

Hepatic ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury constitutes a tough difficulty in liver surgery. Dexmedetomidine (Dex) plays a protective role in I/R injury. This study investigated protective mechanism of Dex in hepatic I/R injury. The human hepatocyte line L02 received hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) treatment to stimulate cell model of hepatic I/R. The levels of pyroptosis proteins and inflammatory factors were detected. Functional rescue experiments were performed to confirm the effects of miR-494 and JUND on hepatic I/R injury. The levels of JUND, PI3K/p-PI3K, AKT/p-AKT, Nrf2, and NLRP3 activation were detected. The rat model of hepatic I/R injury was established to confirm the effect of Dex in vivo. Dex reduced pyroptosis and inflammation in H/R cells. Dex increased miR-494 expression, and miR-494 targeted JUND. miR-494 inhibition or JUND upregulation reversed the protective effect of Dex. Dex repressed NLRP3 inflammasome by activating the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 pathway. In vivo experiments confirmed the protective effect of Dex on hepatic I/R injury. Overall, Dex repressed NLRP3 inflammasome and alleviated hepatic I/R injury via the miR-494/JUND/PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 axis.     

The Role of N-Acetyltransferase 8 in Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Based Therapy for Liver Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats

Objective

To evaluate the impact of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) against hepatic I/R injury and explore the role of N-acetyltransferase 8 (NAT8) in the process.

Methods

We investigated the potential of injected MSCs systemically via the tail vein in healing injuried liver of the SD rat model of 70% hepatic I/R injury by measuring the biochemical and pathologic alterations. Subsequently, we evaluated the expression levels of NAT8 by western blotting in vivo. Concurrently, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced apoptosis in the human normal liver cell line L02 was performed in vitro to evaluate the protective effects of MSC conditioned medium (MSC-CM) on L02 cells. In addition, we downregulated and upregulated NAT8 expression in L02 cells and induced apoptosis by using H₂O₂ to study the protective role of NAT8.

Results

MSCs implantation led to a significant reduced liver enzyme levels, an advanced protection in the histopathological findings of the acutely injured liver and a significantly lower percentage of TUNEL-positive cells, which were increased after I/R injury. In vitro assays, MSC-CM inhibited hepatocyte apoptosis induced by H₂O_2. Moreover, overexpression or downregulation of NAT8 prevented or aggravated hepatocyte apoptosis induced by H₂O₂, respectively.

Conclusions

MSC transplantation provides support to the I/R-injured liver by inhibiting hepatocellular apoptosis and stimulating NAT8 regeneration.     

Alpha-lipoic acid regulates the autophagy of vascular smooth muscle cells in diabetes by elevating hydrogen sulfide level

Dysfunctional vascular smooth muscle (VSM) plays a vital role in the process of atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) can prevent the altered VSM induced by diabetes. However, the precise mechanism underlying the beneficial effect of ALA is not well understood. This study aimed to determine whether ALA ameliorates VSM function by elevating hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) level in diabetes and whether this effect is associated with regulation of autophagy of VSM cells (VSMCs). We found decreased serum H₂S levels in Chinese patients and rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). ALA treatment could increase H₂S level, which reduced the autophagy-related index and activation of the 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, thereby protecting vascular function in rats with T2DM. Propargylglycine (PPG), a cystathionine-γ-lyase inhibitor, could weaken the ALA effect. In cultured VSMCs, high glucose level also reduced H₂S level, upregulated the autophagy-related index and activated the AMPK/mTOR pathway, which were reversed by concomitant application of sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS, an H₂S donor) or ALA. The protective effect of NaHS or ALA was attenuated by rapamycin (an autophagy activator), 5-amino-1-β-d-ribofuranosyl-imidazole-4-carboxamide (an AMPK activator) or PPG. In contrast, Compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) enhanced the effect of ALA or NaHS. ALA may have a protective effect on VSMCs in T2DM by elevating H₂S level and downregulating autophagy via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. This study provides a new target for addressing diabetic macroangiopathy.     

Hydrogen Sulfide Offers Neuroprotection on Traumatic Brain Injury in Parallel with Reduced Apoptosis and Autophagy in Mice

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), a novel gaseous mediator, has been recognized as an important neuromodulator and neuroprotective agent in the central nervous system. The present study was undertaken to study the effects of exogenous H₂S on traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the underlying mechanisms. The effects of exogenous H₂S on TBI were examined by using measurement of brain edema, behavior assessment, propidium iodide (PI) staining, and Western blotting, respectively. Compared to TBI groups, H₂S pretreatment had reduced brain edema, improved motor performance and ameliorated performance in Morris water maze test after TBI. Immunoblotting results showed that H₂S pretreatment reversed TBI-induced cleavage of caspase-3 and decline of Bcl-2, suppressed LC3-II, Beclin-1 and Vps34 activation and maintained p62 level in injured cortex and hippocampus post TBI. The results suggest a protective effect and therapeutic potential of H₂S in the treatment of brain injury and the protective effect against TBI may be associated with regulating apoptosis and autophagy.     

Transcriptional Regulation of Cannabinoid Receptor-1 Expression in the Liver by Retinoic Acid Acting via Retinoic Acid Receptor-γ

Alcoholism can result in fatty liver that can progress to steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. Mice fed alcohol develop fatty liver through endocannabinoid activation of hepatic CB₁ cannabinoid receptors (CB₁R), which increases lipogenesis and decreases fatty acid oxidation. Chronic alcohol feeding also up-regulates CB₁R in hepatocytes in vivo, which could be replicated in vitro by co-culturing control hepatocytes with hepatic stellate cells (HSC) isolated from ethanol-fed mice, implicating HSC-derived mediator(s) in the regulation of hepatic CB₁R (Jeong, W. I., Osei-Hyiaman, D., Park, O., Liu, J., Bátkai, S., Mukhopadhyay, P., Horiguchi, N., Harvey-White, J., Marsicano, G., Lutz, B., Gao, B., and Kunos, G. (2008) Cell Metab. 7, 227–235). HSC being a rich source of retinoic acid (RA), we tested whether RA and its receptors may regulate CB₁R expression in cultured mouse hepatocytes. Incubation of hepatocytes with RA or RA receptor (RAR) agonists increased CB₁R mRNA and protein, the most efficacious being the RARγ agonist CD437 and the pan-RAR agonist TTNPB. The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) also increased hepatic CB₁R expression, which was mediated indirectly via RA, because it was absent in hepatocytes from mice lacking retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 1, the enzyme catalyzing the generation of RA from retinaldehyde. The binding of RARγ to the CB₁R gene 5′ upstream domain in hepatocytes treated with RAR agonists or 2-AG was confirmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift and antibody supershift assays. Finally, TTNPB-induced CB₁R expression was attenuated by small interfering RNA knockdown of RARγ in hepatocytes. We conclude that RARγ regulates CB₁R expression and is thus involved in the control of hepatic fat metabolism by endocannabinoids.     

Hydrogen sulphide exacerbates acute pancreatitis by over‐activating autophagy via AMPK/mTOR pathway

Previously, we have shown that hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) might be pro‐inflammatory during acute pancreatitis (AP) through inhibiting apoptosis and subsequently favouring a predominance of necrosis over apoptosis. In this study, we sought to investigate the detrimental effects of H₂S during AP specifically with regard to its regulation on the impaired autophagy. The incubated levels of H₂S were artificially intervened by an administration of sodium hydrosulphide (NaHS) or DL‐propargylglycine (PAG) after AP induction. Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and pre‐mature activation of trypsinogen within acini, which indicate the impairment of autophagy during AP, were both exacerbated by treatment with NaHS but attenuated by treatment with PAG. The regulation that H₂S exerted on the impaired autophagy during AP was further attributed to over‐activation of autophagy rather than hampered autophagosome–lysosome fusion. To elucidate the molecular mechanism that underlies H₂S‐mediated over‐activation of autophagy during AP, we evaluated phosphorylations of AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK), AKT and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Furthermore, Compound C (CC) was introduced to determine the involvement of mTOR signalling by evaluating phosphorylations of downstream effecters including p70 S6 kinase (P70S6k) and UNC‐51‐Like kinase 1 (ULK1). Our findings suggested that H₂S exacerbated taurocholate‐induced AP by over‐activating autophagy via activation of AMPK and subsequently, inhibition of mTOR. Thus, an active suppression of H₂S to restore over‐activated autophagy might be a promising therapeutic approach against AP‐related injuries.     

Loss of sirtuin 1 and mitofusin 2 contributes to enhanced ischemia/reperfusion injury in aged livers

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a causative factor contributing to morbidity and mortality during liver resection and transplantation. Livers from elderly patients have a poorer recovery from these surgeries, indicating reduced reparative capacity with aging. Mechanisms underlying this age‐mediated hypersensitivity to I/R injury remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated how sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) are affected by I/R in aged livers. Young (3 months) and old (23–26 months) male C57/BL6 mice were subjected to hepatic I/R in vivo. Primary hepatocytes isolated from each age group were also exposed to simulated in vitro I/R. Biochemical, genetic, and imaging analyses were performed to assess cell death, autophagy flux, mitophagy, and mitochondrial function. Compared to young mice, old livers showed accelerated liver injury following mild I/R. Reperfusion of old hepatocytes also showed necrosis, accompanied with defective autophagy, onset of the mitochondrial permeability transition, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Biochemical analysis indicated a near‐complete loss of both SIRT1 and MFN2 after I/R in old hepatocytes, which did not occur in young cells. Overexpression of either SIRT1 or MFN2 alone in old hepatocytes failed to mitigate I/R injury, while co‐overexpression of both proteins promoted autophagy and prevented mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death after reperfusion. Genetic approaches with deletion and point mutants revealed that SIRT1 deacetylated K655 and K662 residues in the C‐terminus of MFN2, leading to autophagy activation. The SIRT1‐MFN2 axis is pivotal during I/R recovery and may be a novel therapeutic target to reduce I/R injury in aged livers.