The alpha and beta subunit of the nascent polypeptide-associated complex have distinct functions

Nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) is probably the first cytosolic protein to contact nascent polypeptide chains emerging from ribosomes. In this way NAC prevents inappropriate interactions with other factors. Eventually other factors involved in targeting and folding, like the Signal Recognition Particle or cytosolic chaperones, must gain access to the nascent chain. All NAC preparations to date consist of two copurifying polypeptides. Here we rigorously show that these two polypeptides, termed alpha- and betaNAC, form a very stable complex in vivo and in vitro and that a functional complex can be reconstituted from the individual subunits. A dissection of the contributions of the individual subunits to NACs function revealed that both subunits are in direct contact with nascent polypeptide chains on the ribosome and that both contribute to the prevention of inappropriate interactions. However, betaNAC alone directly binds to the ribosome and is sufficient to prevent ribosome binding to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.     

Association of protein biogenesis factors at the yeast ribosomal tunnel exit is affected by the translational status and nascent polypeptide sequence

Ribosome-associated protein biogenesis factors (RPBs) act during a short but critical period of protein biogenesis. The action of RPBs starts as soon as a nascent polypeptide becomes accessible from the outside of the ribosome and ends upon termination of translation. In yeast, RPBs include the chaperones Ssb1/2 and ribosome-associated complex, signal recognition particle, nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC), the aminopeptidases Map1 and Map2, and the Nalpha-terminal acetyltransferase NatA. Here, we provide the first comprehensive analysis of RPB binding at the yeast ribosomal tunnel exit as a function of translational status and polypeptide sequence. We measured the ratios of RPBs to ribosomes in yeast cells and determined RPB occupation of translating and non-translating ribosomes. The combined results imply a requirement for dynamic and coordinated interactions at the tunnel exit. Exclusively, NAC was associated with the majority of ribosomes regardless of their translational status. All other RPBs occupied only ribosomal subpopulations, binding with increased apparent affinity to randomly translating ribosomes as compared with non-translating ones. Analysis of RPB interaction with homogenous ribosome populations engaged in the translation of specific nascent polypeptides revealed that the affinities of Ssb1/2, NAC, and, as expected, signal recognition particle, were influenced by the amino acid sequence of the nascent polypeptide. Complementary cross-linking data suggest that not only affinity of RPBs to the ribosome but also positioning can be influenced in a nascent polypeptide-dependent manner.     

Ribosome-based protein folding systems are structurally divergent but functionally universal across biological kingdoms

In bacteria, Trigger factor (TF) is the first chaperone that interacts with nascent polypeptides as soon as they emerge from the exit tunnel of the ribosome. TF binds to the ribosomal protein L23 located next to the tunnel exit of the large subunit, with which it forms a cradle-like space embracing the polypeptide exit region. It cooperates with the DnaK Hsp70 chaperone system to ensure correct folding of a number of newly translated cytosolic proteins in Escherichia coli. Whereas TF is exclusively found in prokaryotes and chloroplasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a eukaryotic microorganism, has a three-member Hsp70-J protein complex, Ssb-Ssz-Zuo, which could act as a ribosome-associated folding facilitator. In the work reported in this volume of Molecular Microbiology, Rauch et al. (2005, Mol Microbiol, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04690.x) examined the functional similarity of the ribosome-associated chaperones in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In spite of the fact that TF and the Hsp70-based triad are structurally unrelated, TF can bind to the yeast ribosome via Rpl25 (the L23 counterpart) and can substitute for some, but not all, of the functions assigned to Ssb-Ssz-Zuo in yeast. The functional conservation of the ribosome-associated chaperones without structural similarity is remarkable and suggests that during evolution nature has employed a common design but divergent components to facilitate folding of polypeptides as they emerge from the ribosomal exit, a fundamental process required for the efficient expression of genetic information.     

L25 functions as a conserved ribosomal docking site shared by nascent chain-associated complex and signal-recognition particle

The nascent chain-associated complex (NAC) is a dimeric protein complex of archaea and eukarya that interacts with ribosomes and translating polypeptide chains. We show that, in yeast, NAC and the signal-recognition particle (SRP) share the universally conserved ribosomal protein L25 as a docking site, which is in close proximity to the ribosomal exit tunnel. The amino-terminal segment of beta-NAC was found to be required for L25 binding. Purified NAC can prevent protein aggregation in vitro and thus shows certain properties of a molecular chaperone. Interestingly, the alpha-subunit of NAC interacts with the 54 kDa subunit of SRP. Consistent with a regulatory role of NAC in protein translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), we find that deletion of NAC results in an induction of the ER stress-response pathway. These results identify L25 as a conserved interaction platform for specific cytosolic factors that guide nascent polypeptides to their proper cellular destination.     

Mechanistic Insight into the Reactivation of BCAII Enzyme from Denatured and Molten Globule States by Eukaryotic Ribosomes and Domain V rRNAs

In all life forms, decoding of messenger-RNA into polypeptide chain is accomplished by the ribosome. Several protein chaperones are known to bind at the exit of ribosomal tunnel to ensure proper folding of the nascent chain by inhibiting their premature folding in the densely crowded environment of the cell. However, accumulating evidence suggests that ribosome may play a chaperone role in protein folding events in vitro. Ribosome-mediated folding of denatured proteins by prokaryotic ribosomes has been studied extensively. The RNA-assisted chaperone activity of the prokaryotic ribosome has been attributed to the domain V, a span of 23S rRNA at the intersubunit side of the large subunit encompassing the Peptidyl Transferase Centre. Evidently, this functional property of ribosome is unrelated to the nascent chain protein folding at the exit of the ribosomal tunnel. Here, we seek to scrutinize whether this unique function is conserved in a primitive kinetoplastid group of eukaryotic species Leishmania donovani where the ribosome structure possesses distinct additional features and appears markedly different compared to other higher eukaryotic ribosomes. Bovine Carbonic Anhydrase II (BCAII) enzyme was considered as the model protein. Our results manifest that domain V of the large subunit rRNA of Leishmania ribosomes preserves chaperone activity suggesting that ribosome-mediated protein folding is, indeed, a conserved phenomenon. Further, we aimed to investigate the mechanism underpinning the ribosome-assisted protein reactivation process. Interestingly, the surface plasmon resonance binding analyses exhibit that rRNA guides productive folding by directly interacting with molten globule-like states of the protein. In contrast, native protein shows no notable affinity to the rRNA. Thus, our study not only confirms conserved, RNA-mediated chaperoning role of ribosome but also provides crucial insight into the mechanism of the process.     

Chaperone binding at the ribosomal exit tunnel

The exit tunnel region of the ribosome is well established as a focal point for interaction between the components that guide the fate of nascent polypeptides. One of these, the chaperone trigger factor (TF), associates with the 50S ribosomal subunit through its N-terminal domain. Targeting of TF to ribosomes is crucial to achieve its remarkable efficiency in protein folding. A similar tight coupling to translation is found in signal recognition particle (SRP)-dependent protein translocation. Here, we report crystal structures of the E. coli TF ribosome binding domain. TF is structurally related to the Hsp33 chaperone but has a prominent ribosome anchor located as a tip of the molecule. This tip includes the previously established unique TF signature motif. Comparison reveals that this feature is not found in SRP structures. We identify a conserved helical kink as a hallmark of the TF structure that is most likely critical to ensure ribosome association.     

Dual Binding Mode of the Nascent Polypeptide-associated Complex Reveals a Novel Universal Adapter Site on the Ribosome

Nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) was identified in eukaryotes as the first cytosolic factor that contacts the nascent polypeptide chain emerging from the ribosome. NAC is present as a homodimer in archaea and as a highly conserved heterodimer in eukaryotes. Mutations in NAC cause severe embryonically lethal phenotypes in mice, Drosophila melanogaster, and Caenorhabditis elegans. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae NAC is quantitatively associated with ribosomes. Here we show that NAC contacts several ribosomal proteins. The N terminus of βNAC, however, specifically contacts near the tunnel exit ribosomal protein Rpl31, which is unique to eukaryotes and archaea. Moreover, the first 23 amino acids of βNAC are sufficient to direct an otherwise non-associated protein to the ribosome. In contrast, αNAC (Egd2p) contacts Rpl17, the direct neighbor of Rpl31 at the ribosomal tunnel exit site. Rpl31 was also recently identified as a contact site for the SRP receptor and the ribosome-associated complex. Furthermore, in Escherichia coli peptide deformylase (PDF) interacts with the corresponding surface area on the eubacterial ribosome. In addition to the previously identified universal adapter site represented by Rpl25/Rpl35, we therefore refer to Rpl31/Rpl17 as a novel universal docking site for ribosome-associated factors on the eukaryotic ribosome.     

Cotranslational protein folding within the ribosome tunnel influences trigger-factor recruitment

In recent years, various folding zones within the ribosome tunnel have been identified and explored through x-ray, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), and molecular biology studies. Here, we generated ribosome-bound nascent polypeptide complexes (RNCs) with different polyalanine (poly-A) inserts or signal peptides from membrane/secretory proteins to explore the influence of nascent chain compaction in the Escherichia coli ribosome tunnel on chaperone recruitment. By employing time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer and immunoblotting, we were able to show that the poly-A inserts embedded in the passage tunnel can form a compacted structure (presumably helix) and reduce the recruitment of Trigger Factor (TF) when the helical motif is located in the region near the tunnel exit. Similar experiments on nascent chains containing signal sequences that may form compacted structural motifs within the ribosome tunnel and lure the signal recognition particle (SRP) to the ribosome, provided additional evidence that short, compacted nascent chains interfere with TF binding. These findings shed light on the possible controlling mechanism of nascent chains within the tunnel that leads to chaperone recruitment, as well as the function of L23, the ribosomal protein that serves as docking sites for both TF and SRP, in cotranslational protein targeting.     

Dissecting functional similarities of ribosome-associated chaperones from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli

Ribosome-tethered chaperones that interact with nascent polypeptide chains have been identified in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. However, these ribosome-associated chaperones share no sequence similarity: bacterial trigger factors (TF) form an independent protein family while the yeast machinery is Hsp70-based. The absence of any component of the yeast machinery results in slow growth at low temperatures and sensitivity to aminoglycoside protein synthesis inhibitors. After establishing that yeast ribosomal protein Rpl25 is able to recruit TF to ribosomes when expressed in place of its Escherichia coli homologue L23, the ribosomal TF tether, we tested whether such divergent ribosome-associated chaperones are functionally interchangeable. E. coli TF was expressed in yeast cells that lacked the endogenous ribosome-bound machinery. TF associated with yeast ribosomes, cross-linked to yeast nascent polypeptides and partially complemented the aminoglycoside sensitivity, demonstrating that ribosome-associated chaperones from divergent organisms share common functions, despite their lack of sequence similarity.     

A lysine-rich region within fungal BAG domain-containing proteins mediates a novel association with ribosomes

Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is a highly conserved molecular chaperone that assists in the folding of nascent chains and the repair of unfolded proteins through iterative cycles of ATP binding, hydrolysis, and nucleotide exchange tightly coupled to polypeptide binding and release. Cochaperones, including nucleotide exchange factors (NEFs), modulate the rate of ADP/ATP exchange and serve to recruit Hsp70 to distinct processes or locations. Among three nonrelated cytosolic NEFs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Bag-1 homolog SNL1 is unique in being tethered to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. We demonstrate here a novel physical association between Snl1 and the intact ribosome. This interaction is both independent of and concurrent with binding to Hsp70 and is not dependent on membrane localization. The ribosome binding site is identified as a short lysine-rich motif within the amino terminus of the Snl1 BAG domain distinct from the Hsp70 interaction region. Additionally, we demonstrate a ribosome association with the Candida albicans Snl1 homolog and localize this putative NEF to a perinuclear/ER membrane, suggesting functional conservation in fungal BAG domain-containing proteins. We therefore propose that the Snl1 family of NEFs serves a previously unknown role in fungal protein biogenesis based on the coincident recruitment of ribosomes and Hsp70 to the ER membrane.     

Localization of the trigger factor binding site on the ribosomal 50S subunit

In Escherichia coli, protein folding is undertaken by three distinct sets of chaperones, the DnaK-DnaJ and GroEL-GroES systems and the trigger factor (TF). TF has been proposed to be the first chaperone to interact with the nascent polypeptide chain as it emerges from the tunnel of the 70S ribosome and thus probably plays an important role in co-translational protein folding. We have made complexes with deuterated ribosomes (50S subunits and 70S ribosomes) and protated TF and determined the TF binding site on the respective complexes using the neutron scattering technique of spin-contrast variation. Our data suggest that the TF binds in the form of a homodimer. On both the 50S subunit and the 70S ribosome, the TF position is in proximity to the tunnel exit site, near ribosomal proteins L23 and L29, located on the back of the 50S subunit. The positions deviate from one another, such that the position on the 70S ribosome is located slightly further from the tunnel than that determined for the 50S subunit alone. Nevertheless, from both determined positions interaction between TF and a short nascent chain of 57 amino acid residues would be plausible, compatible with a role for TF participation in co-translational protein folding.     

Interplay of signal recognition particle and trigger factor at L23 near the nascent chain exit site on the Escherichia coli ribosome

As newly synthesized polypeptides emerge from the ribosome, they interact with chaperones and targeting factors that assist in folding and targeting to the proper location in the cell. In Escherichia coli, the chaperone trigger factor (TF) binds to nascent polypeptides early in biosynthesis facilitated by its affinity for the ribosomal proteins L23 and L29 that are situated around the nascent chain exit site on the ribosome. The targeting factor signal recognition particle (SRP) interacts specifically with the signal anchor (SA) sequence in nascent inner membrane proteins (IMPs). Here, we have used photocross-linking to map interactions of the SA sequence in a short, in vitro-synthesized, nascent IMP. Both TF and SRP were found to interact with the SA with partially overlapping binding specificity. In addition, extensive contacts with L23 and L29 were detected. Both purified TF and SRP could be cross-linked to L23 on nontranslating ribosomes with a competitive advantage for SRP. The results suggest a role for L23 in the targeting of IMPs as an attachment site for TF and SRP that is close to the emerging nascent chain.     

Zuotin, a ribosome-associated DnaJ molecular chaperone.

Correct folding of newly synthesized polypeptides is thought to be facilitated by Hsp70 molecular chaperones in conjunction with DnaJ cohort proteins. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, SSB proteins are ribosome-associated Hsp70s which interact with the newly synthesized nascent polypeptide chain. Here we report that the phenotypes of an S.cerevisiae strain lacking the DnaJ-related protein Zuotin (Zuo1) are very similar to those of a strain lacking Ssb, including sensitivities to low temperatures, certain protein synthesis inhibitors and high osmolarity. Zuo1, which has been shown previously to be a nucleic acid-binding protein, is also a ribosome-associated protein localized predominantly in the cytosol. Analysis of zuo1 deletion and truncation mutants revealed a positive correlation between the ribosome association of Zuo1 and its ability to bind RNA. We propose that Zuo1 binds to ribosomes, in part, by interaction with ribosomal RNA and that Zuo1 functions with Ssb as a chaperone on the ribosome.     

Early encounters of a nascent membrane protein: specificity and timing of contacts inside and outside the ribosome

An unbiased photo-cross-linking approach was used to probe the "molecular path" of a growing nascent Escherichia coli inner membrane protein (IMP) from the peptidyl transferase center to the surface of the ribosome. The nascent chain was initially in proximity to the ribosomal proteins L4 and L22 and subsequently contacted L23, which is indicative of progression through the ribosome via the main ribosomal tunnel. The signal recognition particle (SRP) started to interact with the nascent IMP and to target the ribosome-nascent chain complex to the Sec-YidC complex in the inner membrane when maximally half of the transmembrane domain (TM) was exposed from the ribosomal exit. The combined data suggest a flexible tunnel that may accommodate partially folded nascent proteins and parts of the SRP and SecY. Intraribosomal contacts of the nascent chain were not influenced by the presence of a functional TM in the ribosome.     

Identification of a regulatory motif in Hsp70 that affects ATPase activity, substrate binding and interaction with HDJ-1.

The Hsp70 family of molecular chaperones has an essential role in the synthesis, folding and translocation of the nascent peptide chain. While the general features of these activities are well documented, less is understood about the regulation of these activities. The ATPase rate is stimulated by non-native proteins, furthermore, interaction with ATP leads to the release of protein substrate concurrent with a conformational change in Hsp70. One interpretation of these data is that the two domains of Hsp70 interact. In the process of mapping the carboxyl-terminal boundary of the substrate binding domain for human Hsp70, we identified a regulatory motif, EEVD, which is conserved at the extreme carboxyl terminus among nearly all cloned cytosolic eukaryotic Hsp70s. Deletion or mutation of EEVD affects the ATPase activity, the ability to interact with substrates, and interferes with the ability of the mutant Hsp70 to interact with HDJ-1 in the refolding of denatured firefly luciferase. Examination of the biophysical properties of the mutant Hsp70s reveals a change in the overall shape and conformation of the protein consistent with reduced interactions between the two domains. These data suggest that the EEVD motif is involved in the intramolecular regulation of Hsp70 function and intermolecular interactions with HDJ-1.     

The crystal structure of archaeal nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) reveals a unique fold and the presence of a ubiquitin-associated domain

Nascent polypeptide-associated complex (NAC) was identified in eukaryotes as the first cytosolic factor that contacts the nascent polypeptide chain emerging from the ribosome. NAC is highly conserved from yeast to humans. Mutations in NAC cause severe embryonically lethal phenotypes in mice, Drosophila, and Caenorhabditis elegans. NAC was suggested to protect the nascent chain from inappropriate early interactions with cytosolic factors. Eukaryotic NAC is a heterodimer with two subunits sharing substantial homology with each other. All sequenced archaebacterial genomes exhibit only one gene homologous to the NAC subunits. Here we present the first archaebacterial NAC homolog. It forms a homodimer, and as eukaryotic NAC it is associated with ribosomes and contacts the emerging nascent chain on the ribosome. We present the first crystal structure of a NAC protein revealing two structural features: (i) a novel unique protein fold that mediates dimerization of the complex, and (ii) a ubiquitin-associated domain that suggests a yet unidentified role for NAC in the cellular protein quality control system via the ubiquitination pathway. Based on the presented structure we propose a model for the eukaryotic heterodimeric NAC domain.     

The ribosomal exit tunnel functions as a discriminating gate

Translation of SecM stalls unless its N-terminal part is "pulled" by the protein export machinery. Here we show that the sequence motif FXXXXWIXXXXGIRAGP that includes a specific arrest point (Pro) causes elongation arrest within the ribosome. Mutations that bypass the elongation arrest were isolated in 23S rRNA and L22 r protein. Such suppressor mutations occurred at a few specific residues of these components, which all face the narrowest constriction of the ribosomal exit tunnel. Thus, we suggest that this region of the exit tunnel interacts with nascent translation products and functions as a discriminating gate.     

A cradle for new proteins: trigger factor at the ribosome

Newly synthesized proteins leave the ribosome through a narrow tunnel in the large subunit. During ongoing synthesis, nascent protein chains are particularly sensitive to aggregation and degradation because they emerge from the ribosome in an unfolded state. In bacteria, the first protein to interact with nascent chains and facilitate their folding is the ribosome-associated chaperone trigger factor. Recently, crystal structures of trigger factor and of its ribosome-binding domain in complex with the large ribosomal subunit revealed that the chaperone adopts an extended 'dragon-shaped' fold with a large hydrophobic cradle, which arches over the exit of the ribosomal tunnel and shields newly synthesized proteins. These structural results, together with recent biochemical data on trigger factor and its interplay with other chaperones and factors that interact with the nascent chain, provide a comprehensive view of the role of trigger factor during co-translational protein folding.     

Analysis of the interplay of protein biogenesis factors at the ribosome exit site reveals new role for NAC

The ribosome exit site is a focal point for the interaction of protein-biogenesis factors that guide the fate of nascent polypeptides. These factors include chaperones such as NAC, N-terminal-modifying enzymes like Methionine aminopeptidase (MetAP), and the signal recognition particle (SRP), which targets secretory and membrane proteins to the ER. These factors potentially compete with one another in the short time-window when the nascent chain first emerges at the exit site, suggesting a need for regulation. Here, we show that MetAP contacts the ribosome at the universal adaptor site where it is adjacent to the α subunit of NAC. SRP is also known to contact the ribosome at this site. In the absence of NAC, MetAP and SRP antagonize each other, indicating a novel role for NAC in regulating the access of MetAP and SRP to the ribosome. NAC also functions in SRP-dependent targeting and helps to protect substrates from aggregation before translocation.     

Role of the ribosome in protein folding

In all organisms, the ribosome synthesizes and folds full length polypeptide chains into active three-dimensional conformations. The nascent protein goes through two major interactions, first with the ribosome which synthesizes the polypeptide chain and holds it for a considerable length of time, and then with the chaperones. Some of the chaperones are found in solution as well as associated to the ribosome. A number of in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that the nascent protein folds through specific interactions of some amino acids with the nucleotides in the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) in the large ribosomal subunit. The mechanism of this folding differs from self-folding. In this article, we highlight the folding of nascent proteins on the ribosome and the influence of chaperones etc. on protein folding.