Characteristics of body mass growth in semialtricial and altricial bird species during the nestling period

The dynamics of body mass growth were studied in nestlings of 22 semialtricial and altricial bird species based on materials collected in seven regions of Russia in the years 1976–2013. The bird species belong to four orders and 13 families. The results of the study indicate the nonuniform growth of nestlings in different bird species. Of the species investigated, only seven were found to reach or exceed the mass of adult birds. Over the nestling period, the nestlings of open-nesting species, such as the hooded crow (Corvus cornix), rook (Corvus frugilegus), magpie (Pica pica), fieldfare (Turdus pilaris), song thrush (Turdus philomelos), and goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), do not reach the weight of adult birds and their growth continues after they leave the nest. In closed-nesting species, only the nestlings of the barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) reach or exceed the definitive mass, whereas the nestlings of the jackdaw (Corvus monedula), starling (Sturnus vulgaris), wryneck (Jynx torquilla), tree sparrow (Passer montanus), and great tit (Parus major) continue to grow after leaving the nest. The body mass of birds on the day of their hatching and before their departure from the nests and the mass of adult birds depend on the nesting type, duration of the nestling period, size groups of species, and their definitive size. The average specific growth rate of body mass and its maximum values for different species are also associated with these factors. The maximum specific growth rate in small-sized and medium-sized bird species was observed on the 0–1st days of life; in large bird species, on the 2nd–4th days. The specific growth rate did not depend on the type of nesting, but it was inversely related to the duration of the nestling period and the definitive sizes of birds.     

On the biology of the bird parasite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neottiophilum praeustum</Emphasis> (Meigen, 1826) (Diptera,Neottiophilidae)

The first data on blood-sucking ectoparasitic larvae of Neottiophilum praeustum (Meig.) which develop in bird nests are presented in Russia, with the fieldfare Turdus pilaris L. as a host example. Larval development takes not more than 10–12 days but no puparia are formed until late autumn. The larvae of Neottiophilum resemble those of calliphorid flies both in body structure and life mode. The main diagnostic characters of Neottiophilum larvae distinguishing them from calliphorid ones are the spiracular disk of the posterior spiracles being positioned dorsal rather than ventral to the stigmal plate and lying outside rather than inside its peritreme. In addition, the anterior spiracles have 14–15, rather than 3–8 spiracular chambers.     

Effect of host species,host nest density and nest size on the occurrence of the shining guest ant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Formicoxenus nitidulus</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Understanding habitat requirements of species is important in conservation. As an obligate ant nest associate, the survival of the globally vulnerable shining guest ant, Formicoxenus nitidulus, is strictly tied to that of its hosts (mound building Formica ants). We investigated how host species, nest density, inter-nest distance and nest mound size relate to the occurrence of F. nitidulus. In total, 166 red wood ant nests were surveyed in SW Finland (120 Formica polyctena, 25 F. rufa, 14 F. aquilonia, 5 F. pratensis, and 2 F. lugubris). Overall, F. nitidulus was found in 60% of the nests. For the actual analysis, only F. polyctena and F. rufa nests were included due to the small number of other nests. F. nitidulus was more likely to be found among F. polyctena than F. rufa. Also, while inter-nest distance was not important, a high nest density, commonly found in polydomous (multi-nest) wood ant colonies, was beneficial for F. nitidulus. The guest ant was also more likely to be found in large host nests than small nests. Thus, our results show that the best habitat for the guest ant is a dense population of host nest mounds with a high proportion of large mounds. Conservation efforts should be directed at keeping the quality of the red wood ant habitats high to preserve their current populations and to increase colonization. This will not only benefit the guest ant, but also a plethora of other species, and help in maintaining the biodiversity of forests.     

Nest-building in ants <Emphasis Type="Italic">Formica exsecta</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Formicidae)

Representatives of the subgenus Coptoformica build composite aboveground nests in much the same manner as red wood ants do. However, despite the superficial similarity, Coptoformica nests show a number of substantial differences that impact on the way in which ants use the nest. The aboveground part of a Formica (Coptoformica) exsecta nest consists of the temporary layer, the outer crust layer, the mound, and the intermediate layer. The material of all the layers includes soil and fragments of plants (picked up or excised), the relative proportion of the two components differing among the layers. The thick, soil-rich crust layer acts as armature and allows a variety of anthill shapes. The intermediate layer and the upper part of the mound harbor quite a few large chambers. Building material is often transferred from nest to nest. On the whole, F. exsecta nests are plastic and movable, which facilitates the activity of these ants in ecotone biotopes.     

Factors Influencing the Survival of Sympatric Gorilla (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gorilla gorilla gorilla</Emphasis>) and Chimpanzee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes troglodytes</Emphasis>) Nests

Accurate and precise surveys of primate abundance provide the basis for understanding species ecology and essential information for conservation assessments. Owing to the elusive nature of wild apes and the vast region of dense forest they inhabit, population estimates of central chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) have largely relied on surveys of their nests. Specific information about the nesting behavior of apes permits the estimation of the number of nests built (nest creation rate). Similarly, information on nest characteristics and environmental factors can be used to estimate the time it takes nests to decay (nest decay rate). Nest creation and decay rates are then used to convert nest density estimates to absolute ape densities. Population estimates that use site-specific estimates of nest creation and decay rates are more accurate and precise. However, it is common practice to generalize these conversion factors across sites because of the additional cost of studies required to gather the information to estimate them. Over a 9-mo study period, we detected and monitored the time to decay of gorilla nests (N = 514) and chimpanzee nests (N = 521) in northern Republic of Congo. We investigated the influence of nest characteristics and environmental factors on nest survivorship and estimated the mean time to nest decay (or equivalently survival) using MARK. Key factors influencing nest decay rate included ape species, forest type, nest height, mean rainfall, nest structure, nest type, and primary aspects of nest construction. Our findings highlight the synergistic effect of behavior and environment on great ape nest degradation, as well as providing practical insights for improving measures to monitor remaining populations of these endangered species.     

Review of bees as guests in termite nests,with a new record of the communal bee, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gaesochira obscura</Emphasis> (Smith, 1879) (Hymenoptera,Apidae), in nests of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anoplotermes banksi</Emphasis> Emerson, 1925 (Isoptera,Termitidae, Apicotermitinae)

Associations between bees and termites are documented infrequently, but records are available for bee species ranging in behavior from solitary to highly eusocial. The subtribe Meliponina (stingless bees) is the most common bee group reported in termite nests, and, for some species, the occupancy of termite nests may be obligatory. The records of solitary bees nesting within termite nests include species of the tribes Emphorini, Centridini, Megachilini, and Paracolletini. Most of these bees can probably nest in other substrates, and their relationships with termite nests are presumably opportunistic. This study provides a review of published records of bees as guests in termite nests, and also describes the aggregation of nests of Gaesochira obscura within one nest of Anoplotermes banksi in Brazilian Amazonia. One termite nest contained at least ten nest entrances of G. obscura, with burrows 4–6 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Each burrow ended in brood cells in different stages of food provisioning and larval development. As commonly reported for other associations of this nature, there was no connection between the tunnels of bees and those of termites. This record adds important data on the biology of A. banksi. Because this is a single record, it is impossible to classify G. obscura either as a termitophile or termitariophile; this species may be opportunistic in relation to nesting substrate.     

Interactions between the Social Digger Wasp, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cerceris rubida</Emphasis>, and Its Brood Parasitic Flies at a Mediterranean Nest Aggregation

The fitness consequence of many behaviours of the small digger wasp, Cerceris rubida (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae), the only European species of its genus in which females share nests, are still unknown. Here, I present novel data on the nesting patterns and nest parasites of an Italian population of this wasp, with emphasis on which behavioural strategies may have evolved to reduce brood parasitism. Nests were established mainly in horizontal surfaces with scarce vegetation and hard soil, resulting in spatially clumped nests; the extent of nest aggregation increased over a 6-year period. Wasp brood cells are attacked by the miltogrammine fly Pterella grisea (Diptera: Sarcophagidae), which waits for nest-returning wasps on perching sites and then follows them in flight (satellite flight), eventually landing on the nest entrance and larvipositing without entering further in the tunnel. This technique seems to be adaptive for the parasitic flies, which would be rejected from nests by the guarding wasps if attempting to enter. The daily activity of the flies closely matched the host wasp’s provisioning activity, but C. rubida females were able to partially confound the tracking flies by performing evasive manoeuvres while returning to the nest. Patches with higher nest density and nests with more resident females did suffer more fly landings on nest entrances (a prerequisite for larviposition). These trends, however, disappeared on a per nest basis and on a per wasp provisioning flight basis, respectively. Across two years, only 6% of brood cells were parasitized, a picture similar to what observed for miltogrammine flies at nest aggregations of other Cerceris spp., and new data are necessary to test if there is a benefit of either nest density or nest sharing against P. grisea parasitism.     

Savanna chimpanzee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes verus</Emphasis>) nesting ecology at Bagnomba (Kedougou,Senegal)

We studied the nesting behavior of the critically endangered West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). We assumed that the nesting data stemmed from a single, unhabituated community at the Bagnomba hill site in the savanna-woodlands of southeastern Senegal. The aim of this study was to examine chimpanzees’ nesting habits in terms of the tree species utilized and sleeping nest heights. We recorded a total of 550 chimpanzee nests at Bagnomba between January 2015 and December 2015. The chimpanzees here made nests in particular tree species more often than others. The majority of nests (63%) were in two tree species: Diospyros mespiliformis and Pterocarpus erinaceus. The average height of nesting trees was 10.54 m (SD 3.91, range, 0.0–29.0 m) and average nest height was 7.90 m (SD 3.62, range, 0.0–25.0 m). The result of a linear regression analysis (r = 0.7874; n = 550; p < 0.05) is consistent with a preference for nesting at a particular height. Bagnomba chimpanzees rarely made ground nests (0.36% of nests), but the presence of any ground nesting was unexpected, given that at least one leopard (Panthera pardus) also occupied the hill. This knowledge will enable stakeholders involved in the protection of chimpanzees specifically and of biodiversity in general to better understand chimpanzee ecology and inform a conservation action plan in Senegal where the survival of this species is threatened.     

First Data on the Bionomics of the Solitary Wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptochilus membranaceus</Emphasis> (Morawitz) (Hymenoptera,Vespidae: Eumeninae)

The bionomics of Leptochilus membranaceus (Morawitz) was studied in Crimea. The species is confined to herbaceous xerophytic habitats with sparse vegetation and has two generations per year. Adult feeding was recorded on flowers of 8 plant species of 6 families. A single nest was found in an old acridid egg pod in clayey soil. The inner cavity of the empty egg pod was 12 mm long and 3 mm wide. The nest contained one cell with a prepupa in the cocoon. The cell was sealed with a final plug 2 mm thick, made of gravel and mud. The cocoon consisted of three equal thin layers, the outer layer being firmly attached to the cell walls. Females of L. membranaceus do not visit water sources. The origin of the agent bonding the building material (soil) used by L. membranaceus and other congeneric species is discussed. In addition, nests of Ancistrocerus scoticus (Curtis) are also discussed; these nests occur in old acridid egg pods which were earlier misinterpreted as bottle-shaped cells built by the wasps themselves.     

Nesting Behaviour of the Giant Honeybees <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">dorsata</Emphasis> Occurring in Jhargram,West Bengal,India

The giant honeybees Apis dorsata are habituated to construct combs in trees, houses, caves as well as in overhead water reservoir occurring in their nesting localities. To verify their preference for nesting sites if any, surveys were conducted in recent years (2013–16), during nesting seasons of these bees in Jhargram area of West Bengal, India. It is revealed that A. dorsata construct their combs in big, tall, aged simul (Bombax ceiba), bot (Ficus benghalensis) trees mostly, irrespective of localities. Also they were seen to construct nest at the underside of the overhead water reservoir ignoring nesting potential trees occurring nearby. Of course, nesting in the houses, and on the walls of culvert is not uncommon. As the bees constructed more than 100–200 nests at the same nesting site e.g., a tree or/and an overhead water reservoir, depending upon the availability of space for construction of nest it is concluded that these insects prefer colonial nesting.     

Modes of colony foundation by females of different morphotypes in the paper wasps (Hymenoptera,Vespidae, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes</Emphasis> Latr.)

Paper wasps of the genus Polistes exhibit wide variability both of the color and size of foundresses, and the mode of colony foundation. The colony foundation and social hierarchy were studied in populations of two Palaearctic species, Polistes dominulus (Christ) and P. nimphus (Christ) (April–May 2006, the Crimean Peninsula, Ukraine), and one Neotropical species, P. lanio (F.) (October 2004–January 2005, Trinidad Island). It was shown that foundresses of various color and size morphs tended to found nests in a peculiar way: singly (haplometrosis), by groups (pleometrosis), or occupying several nests simultaneously (polycaly). The relationship between coloration, size, and mode of colony foundation was species-specific. P. dominulus foundresses with a darker clypeus and a paler mesonotum preferred to found nests alone and had a dominant position in pleometrosis. The haplometrotic P. nimphus foundresses more often displayed darker variants of the clypeus and paler variants of the mesonotum than did foundresses from pleometrotic colonies. P. lanio foundresses from pleometrotic colonies differed from those from polycalic colonies in the coloration variability of the scutum, propodeum, and the 2nd metasomal tergite. The dominant and subordinate P. nimphus and P. lanio foundresses differed in the size of head and wings. The possible significance of the subdivision of foundresses into the “generalists” and “specialists” for the variability structuring in the population is considered.     

Chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>) Flexibly Use Introduced Species for Nesting and Bark Feeding in a Human-Dominated Habitat

As habitat loss and fragmentation place growing pressure on endangered nonhuman primate populations, researchers find increasing evidence for novel responses in behavior. In western Uganda between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) inhabit a mosaic landscape comprising forest fragments, human settlements, and agricultural land. We recorded nests and feeding evidence of unhabituated chimpanzees in this region over a 12-mo period. We found extensive evidence of nesting in introduced tree species, including eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis), guava (Psidium guajava), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), and Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea). In addition, we found instances of ground nesting, nest reuse, and composite nests constructed from branches of multiple trees. This evidence may indicate a lack of suitable nesting trees or attempts by chimpanzees to nest in areas of riparian forest that allow them to avoid human detection. We also found new evidence for eucalyptus bark feeding by chimpanzees. Such evidence suggests chimpanzees respond flexibly to mitigate anthropogenic pressures in human-dominated landscapes. The limits of such flexibility remain unknown. Further research is needed to examine systematically the factors influencing the use of such resources and to understand better the extent to which chimpanzees can persist while relying on them.     

Waste of leaf-cutting ants: disposal,nest structure,and abiotic soil factors around internal waste chambers

Leaf-cutting ants produce large quantities of waste that harbor bacteria and fungi that are harmful to the colony. To be protected from these pathogens, the workers of Atta species present a sophisticated organization to manage harmful material, which can be deposited outside the nest or in internal chambers. However, little is known about the behavior of Acromyrmex species in handling and disposal of waste. Due to some observations, we assume that the same species of Acromyrmex can deposit waste outside the nest and into internal chambers and raise the following question: what determines the occurrence of internal waste chambers in Acromyrmex? To address this question, we verified whether nest depth influences the waste-chamber occurrence. We also verified the nest structure and the abiotic factors of soil beside each waste-chamber: pH and water content of the soil. For this, eight nests were excavated for Acromyrmex balzani and Acromyrmex rugosus rugosus. We verified that not only can the same leaf-cutting ant species deposit debris both outside and inside the nest but also the same nest can present internal chambers and external waste deposit. The soil beside the waste chamber always presented an acidic pH, while the humidity varied widely. Our results showed that the nest depth was highly correlated with the depth of the waste chamber (p = 0.0003) and probably has some influence on waste disposal. The characteristics of the nest and the role of depth in the choice of waste chamber location are discussed.     

Ambush Predation of Stingless Bees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetragonisca angustula</Emphasis>) by the Solitary-Foraging Ant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ectatomma tuberculatum</Emphasis>

Social insect colonies are high-value foraging targets for insectivores, prompting the evolution of complex colony defensive adaptations as well as specialized foraging tactics in social insect predators. Predatory ants that forage on other social insects employ a diverse range of behaviors targeted at specific prey species. Here, we describe a solitary foraging strategy of the ant Ectatomma tuberculatum, on nest guards of the stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula. We observed multiple instances of E. tuberculatum ambushing and successfully capturing the hovering and standing guards of T. angustula near nest entrances. The unique hovering behavior of the guard caste of this bee species, an adaptation to frequent cleptoparasitism by other stingless bees, may make these guards particularly vulnerable to ground-based, ambush attacks by E. tuberculatum. Likewise, the behavior of the foraging ants appears to adaptively exploit the defensive formations and activity patterns of these bees. These observations suggest an adaptive and targeted predatory strategy aimed at gathering external guard bees as prey from these heavily fortified nests.     

Nesting Material and Nest Building Technique in Two Species of Broadbill (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Corydon sumatranus</Emphasis>, Passeriformes,Eurylaimidae) from Southern Vietnam

Despite the relatively small number of species, the biology of most representatives of Suboscines of the Old World, particularly that of broadbills, (Eurylaimidae) remains poorly studied. The nest-building behavior of two species from the monospecific genera of broadbills Corydon sumatranus (Dusky Broadbill) and Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos (Black-and-red Broadbill) has been described. A detailed study of nest structures has allowed us to determine the materials used in the construction, as well as to study in detail the techniques of its application at different stages of construction. Some unique techniques of nest-building were described. The connection between the properties of the building materials, design features, and construction techniques was characterized. The study of nests in the described species provides a key to understanding the construction of nests in other species of broadbills and in bird species building similar domed pendent nests.     

Testate amoebae (Testacea) in a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Formica lugubris</Emphasis> nest: Fauna composition and structure

The fauna of testate amoebae (Testacea) in a Formica lugubris anthill and in litter layers from the control soil area in a spruce forest, Moscow region, was represented by a total of 43 species and subspecies. Their numbers ranged from 11000 ind./g air-dry substrate in the surface layer of the anthill to 62000 ind./g in the lower litter layer A0H/A1, with variation in species diversity between the samples being insignificant (24–30 species). Representatives of the genera Centropyxis, Cyclopyxis, Plagiopyxis, Corythion, and Trinema were dominant, whereas most of other species were few in numbers. The group of testacean species in the anthill was not specific, being a derivative of the testacean complex inhabiting the surrounding soil. Differences between litter layers and between these layers and substrates from the anthill concerned mainly the composition of the testacean community, which proved to change in the course of plant material decomposition: the aerophilic complex of upper layers (dominated by Centropyxis aerophila and Trinema lineare) was substituted by an edaphophilic complex (with Plagiopyxis declivis being dominant) in the nest mound of the anthill and in the lower litter layers. Plagiopyxis penardi was a eudominant species in the nest mound. Its especially high abundance is explained by deep transformation of plant remains in the nest (from moder to mull-like substrate) as the result of ant life activities.     

Contribution to the knowledge of Diptera (Insecta) parasitizing on birds

Data on the species composition and biology of Diptera, parasitizing on 11 bird species, including Passer montanus, Passer domesticus, Parus coeruleus, Parus major, Corvus frugilegus, Corvus cornix, Sturnus vulgaris, Emberiza citronella, Jynx torquilla, Anthus trivialis, and Crex crex, are given. Biological features of Protocalliphora azurea, Carnus hemapterus, Coboldia fuscipes, and Ornithomyia avicularia are discussed.     

Biology of xylophilous larvae of the rhagionid flies <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysopilus dives</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysopilus nigrifacies</Emphasis> (Diptera,Rhagionidae)

The larval morphology and biology of two species of rhagionid flies (Diptera, Rhagionidae) from the Russian Far East are described for the first time. Larvae of Chrysopilus dives Loew develop in the tunnels of xylobiont insects in the trunks of ash trees. Larvae of Ch. nigrifacies Nagatomi were found under the bark of the elm, Sakhalin cork tree, birch, and fir. Morphological characteristics of larvae of Chrysopilus are discussed.