Dietary Intake of Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, and Lead by the Population of Catalonia, Spain

The concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) were determined in samples of food items widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. All samples were randomly acquired in 12 cities of Catalonia between March and June of 2006 and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The dietary intake of these elements was estimated for various age–gender groups of population: children, adolescents, adults, and seniors. In order to determine the temporal trend on the dietary exposure to As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, the current results were compared with those of a previous survey (2000). In the present market basket study, for a standard male adult of 70-kg body weight living in Catalonia, the dietary intakes of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb were 261.01, 9.80, 12.61, and 45.13 μg/day, respectively, while in the 2000 survey, these intakes were 223.59, 15.73, 21.22, and 28.37 μg/day, for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, respectively. For As, the only food groups currently contributing with measurable amounts to intake of total As were fish and shellfish and cereals, while for Cd the highest contribution to total intake corresponded to pulses, tubers, and cereals. For Hg, the contribution was only due to fish and shellfish, while cereals were the group with the highest contribution to total Pb intake. The estimated intakes of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb are notably lower than the respective provisional tolerable weekly intakes, which indicate that these intakes should not mean additional health risks for the consumers.     

Preliminary exposure assessment of deoxynivalenol and patulin in South Africa

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and patulin (PAT) are mycotoxins widely regulated internationally. DON is frequently found in cereals, whereas PAT is commonly found in apple juices. A survey of South African commercial products was conducted on DON levels in maize meal and wheat flours, and on PAT levels in apple juices. DON levels in 23 wheat flour samples (mean of 16 positives, 29 μg/kg) were equal to or below 100 μg/kg and in wheat consumers contributed 6–13% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI; 1 μg/kg body weight per day) for DON set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Sixteen of 18 maize meal samples were contaminated, with a mean for positive samples of 294 μg/kg, and the probable daily intakes ranged from 3.67 μg/kg body weight per day in rural infants to 1.39 μg/kg body weight per day in urban adults. PAT levels in 20 of 30 apple-juice samples were below the detection level of 10 μg/l. Mean of positive samples was 210 μg/l, with three samples exceeding the South African legal limit of 50 μg/l and the highest level (1,650 μg/l) showing the possibility of a brief but high exposure of 37 μg/kg body weight per day (or 9,250% of the JECFA PMTDI of 0.4 μg/kg body weight per day) in young children.     

Cadmium and lead in rice grains and wheat breads in Isfahan (Iran) and human health risk assessment

This study was conducted to survey the levels of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in the main foods of Isfahan province (central Iran). The rice grains and wheat breads were collected from Isfahan city and villages around the Isfahan and Mobarakeh Steel companies. The food samples were wet-ashed by heating in the presence of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The concentrations of Cd and Pb were determined by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). The potential exposure risks were then estimated. Levels of Cd in the rice grains and Pb in the investigated foods (except Sangak beard) were above the maximum levels as set by the Codex Alimentarius and National standards of Iran. The wheat bread samples in Isfahan city and Mobarakeh Steel regions presented higher estimated weekly intake (EWI) of Pb (40.93 and 35.35 µg kg^–1 body weight, respectively) compared to other foods. The EWI for Cd and Pb in most samples was considerably above than the provisional tolerable weekly intake. In most cases, the target hazard quotients values were above one and consequently the consumption of foods in the investigated regions was a potentially serious health risk caused by exposure to the crops contaminated with Cd and Pb.     

Environmental exposure and preventive measures in Sweden and EU*

Environmental exposure to cadmium (Cd) gives rise to renal tubular dysfunction at low cumulative doses of Cd. A possible role of Cd in influencing the occurrence of diseases, e.g., bone, reproductive and cancer in the general population groups environmentally exposed to Cd has been reported from Japan, Belgium, Sweden and China. Authorities have to pay attention to this fact and to act in order to prevent serious outcomes and personal suffering in the population groups at risk. A general approach in setting recommended health based limits and to regulate the occurrence of a substance existing in food stuff is to keep low levels -better to be on the safer side than on the risk side. In the case of cadmium it should be most clear that since cadmium has a very long biological half-life of 20 years in humans, increased cadmium exposure due to human activities can never be accepted. In cases where cadmium exposure can not be avoided the approach should be to limit and decrease exposure. Presently FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and Food has a PTWI (provisional tolerable weekly intake) value for adult persons of 7 microg/kg body weight for Cd (WHO 2003) a value corresponding to 1 microg/kg body weight for each day of a week. For children and pregnant or lactating women daily intakes should not exceed 1 microg/kg body weight.     

Cadmium Exposure in the South Korean Population: Implications of Input Assumptions for Deterministic Dietary Assessment

Dietary exposure to Cadmium (Cd) is of increasing interest globally because of the adverse health effects of Cd arising from multiple sources. The assumptions used when undertaking deterministic assessment of Cd in global or regional diets have implications when applied to specific national cases representing local variation in food composition and consumption patterns different from global or regional norms. We have conducted deterministic dietary Cd exposure assessments for the South Korean population using a variety of schemes for point estimation. Consumption data from the Korean Nutrition Survey (2001 to 2003) and monitoring data from the Korea Food and Drug Administration were used as the basis for the exposure estimates. The average daily per capita Cd exposure was 14 μ g for the South Korean population, representing about 27% of tolerable daily intake (TDI) and is similar to that reported in other countries. The hazard index (HI, the ratio of total Cd exposure to the TDI) typically ranged from 0.3 to 0.9 depending on assumptions used in deterministic estimates of dietary exposure. Even though the current exposure of the South Korean population at large is found to be safe on the basis of these estimates, consideration of high-end patterns of Cd level and consumption suggests the need for continued vigilance in dietary Cd monitoring.     

Energetics in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr fed elevated dietary cadmium

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr were reared for 4 months on experimental diets supplemented with Cd (0.5, 5, 25, 125, or 250 mg Cd x kg(-1)) to assess the long-term energetic changes based on the digestibility and biochemical deposition of the major dietary nutrients and to evaluate a maximum tolerable dietary toxicant concentration. Growth did not differ significantly (P>0.05) from the control groups. The biochemical composition of the carcass, but not the viscera, was negatively affected by dietary Cd exposure. The significant decreases in protein, lipid, and glycogen concentrations in the carcass (P<0.05, 25 mg x kg(-1) compared to control groups) caused a reduction in calculated whole-body energy content in fish fed 125 mg x kg(-1)compared to control groups. This reduction in calculated whole-body energy content was explained by a concurrent significant disturbance to the gastrointestinal function (measured as reduced digestibility). Only at the highest dietary Cd exposure (250 mg x kg(-1)), increased metabolic costs to cope with Cd toxicity was thought to contribute significantly to the reduction in carcass energy content. The most important factor effecting calculated total energetics was nutrient digestibility. Based on the logarithmic effective median concentration for reduced calculated energy digestibility (dietary Cd concentration corresponding to 50% reduction, EC50), the maximum tolerable dietary Cd concentration is 11 mg x kg(-1) diet.     

Estimation of Dietary Intake of Inorganic Arsenic in U.S. Children

Arsenic is a natural component of the environment and is ubiquitous in soils, water, and the diet. Because dietary intake can be a significant source of background exposure to inorganic arsenic (the most toxicologically significant form), accurate intake estimates are needed to provide a context for risk management of arsenic exposure. Intake of inorganic arsenic by adults is fairly well characterized, but previous estimates of childhood intake were based on inorganic arsenic analyses in a limited number of foods (13 food types). This article estimates dietary intake for U.S. children (1 to 6 years of age) based on reported inorganic arsenic concentrations in 38 foods and in water used in cooking those foods (inorganic arsenic concentration of 0.8 μg/L), and U.S. Department of Agriculture food consumption data. This information is combined using a probabilistic software model to extract food consumption patterns and compute exposure distributions. The mean childhood dietary intake estimate for inorganic arsenic was 3.2 μg/day with a range of 1.6 to 6.2 μg/day for the 10th and 95th percentiles, respectively. For both the mean and 95th percentile inorganic arsenic intake rates, intake was predominantly contributed by grain and grain products, fruits and fruit juices, rice and rice products, and milk.     

Trace Metals (Cd,Co, Cr,Cu, Hg,Ni, Pb,and Zn) in Food Supplements of Marine Origin

We determined the concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in dietary supplements of marine origin. Four supplement categories were studied; algae, coral, krill, and shark cartilage. A direct mercury analyzer was used for Hg determinations while acid digestions and ICP-AES were used for Cr analysis and ICP-MS for the other trace metals. Algae are the supplements showing the highest concentrations of Pb, Cr, and Ni with respective means of 1.6 mg Pb/kg dry weight (d.w.), 3.2 Cr mg/kg d.w., and 8.0 mg Ni/kg d.w. Krill supplements have the highest levels of Cd, Cu, and Zn with 0.65 mg Cd/kg d.w., 63 mg Cu/kg d.w., and 50 mg Zn/kg d.w., respectively. Shark cartilage supplements show the highest levels of Hg and Co with mean concentrations of 160 μg Hg/kg d.w. and 73 ± 51 μg Co/kg d.w., respectively. No samples in our study exceeded the provisional tolerable daily intakes set by Health Canada, the joint committee of the World Health Organization/Food and Agricultural Organization, or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Nevertheless, Ni and Pb in algae and Hg in shark cartilage may end up contributing to a very significant portion of the allowable daily intake—leaving little room for normal intake through food consumption and other exposure pathways.     

Human Exposure to Arsenic,Cadmium, Mercury,and Lead from Foods in Catalonia,Spain: Temporal Trend

The main purpose of this study was to establish the temporal trend in the daily dietary intake of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) by the population of Catalonia, Spain. Concentrations of these elements were determined in samples of a number of food items widely consumed in that country. The dietary intake of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb was then estimated for various age–gender groups of population: children, adolescents, adults, and seniors. In the present study, the dietary intakes of As, inorganic As, Cd, Hg, methylmercury, and Pb were 328.37, 16.22, 19.47, 11.39, 10.25, and 101.47 μg/day, respectively, while in a previous (2006) survey, the dietary intakes of As, inorganic As, Cd, Hg, methylmercury, and Pb were 261.01, 33.17, 9.80, 12.61, 11.35, and 45.13 μg/day, respectively. The estimated intakes of Cd, Hg, and Pb are still notably lower than the respective PTWIs, while that of inorganic As is also lower than its BMDL₀₁. In summary, the results of this study indicate that, currently, the dietary intakes of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb should not mean additional health risks for the consumers.     

Health risk assessment of Chinese consumers to lead via diet

This paper investigated the concentrations of Pb in foods and the potential health risk from Pb exposure via surveys and a literature review. It was shown that the mean Pb concentration in different food groups was in the following decreasing order: marine products > meat > egg > vegetable > cereal > bean> dairy > fruit. More precisely, on average the weekly Pb intake (mg kg^?1 bw week^?1) for men, women, 2–3-year-old children, and 4–17-year-old children was 0.0055, 0.0059, 0.0145, and 0.0091, respectively. We used both deterministic and probabilistic methods to estimate the target hazard quotients (THQs) by comparing the dietary Pb intake estimation with respect to the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The result showed that THQ values were lower than 1 in most cases, except the 97.5th percentile THQ values for 2–3-year-old children, and the probability of greater dietary Pb exposure than the tolerant weekly intake (THQ > 1) were 0.2%, 0.6%, 3.7%, and 1.2% for adult men, women, 2–3-year-old children, and 4–17-year-old children, respectively, indicating a low health risk for Chinese consumers. Among all groups, children, especially 2–3-year-old children were the most sensitive sub-population with regard to Pb exposure. Finally, it still appeared necessary to continue undertaking efforts to reduce exposure to Pb.     

Methods for Assessment of Dietary Lead Exposure of the Inner-City Population

Abstract

Assessment of dietary lead exposure of individuals begins with the determination of food and beverage intake by the individuals, and concludes with an evaluation of the lead content of the foods and beverages consumed. Of several techniques available for assessment of dietary intake, the 24-hour food recall is recommended as the method of choice for assessing current dietary lead intakes in inner-city populations. The three-day food record can be used among cooperative and motivated subjects, while the dietary history method is available for assessing long-term intakes in the past. The unavailability of lead content values of a large number of foods will to a large extent restrict the use of these methods in large-scale dietary lead exposure studies. Until the time that such data becomes available, the most accurate estimates of lead intake can be provided by chemical analysis of duplicate samples of foods consumed, as is currently done. However, this method is feasible only for small samples.     

Human Health Risks Derived from Dietary Exposure to Toxic Metals in Catalonia,Spain: Temporal Trend

The present study was aimed at estimating the current (2012) dietary intake of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) by the population of Catalonia, Spain. The temporal trends with respect to previous surveys, performed in 2000, 2005, and 2008, were also determined. For that purpose, metal concentrations were analyzed in a number of widely consumed foodstuffs. A speciation study was also conducted by experimentally determining the levels of inorganic As (InAs) and methylmercury (MeHg) in the same food items. Furthermore, the dietary intake of those metals and species was calculated both deterministically and probabilistically by considering two food consumption surveys: ENCAT and ENIDE, representative of the Catalan and Spanish populations, respectively. An important temporal decrease of the dietary intake was noted for most elements, irrespective of the age-gender population group. Considering data for a male adult, the current dietary intake of As, InAs, Cd, Hg, MeHg, and Pb was estimated in 216, 2.6, 8.7, 10, 7.3, and 8.4 μg/day, respectively, being these values lower than the respective provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWIs) or benchmark dose lower confidence limits (BMDLs). Moreover, new calculations by means of ENIDE survey indicated similar results to those previously obtained by ENCAT, with the exception of MeHg, whose intake exceeded the maximum recommended values for some part of the population. Although our data are similar to those frequently found in other European countries, the important intake of MeHg, which is linked to the high consumption of fish and shellfish, deserves further investigation.     

江苏省典型区农田土壤及小麦中重金属含量与评价

为了研究江苏省典型区地震带农田土壤和小麦中重金属的污染,在具有代表性的农田采集收获期小麦及耕层土壤,分析和评价了土壤和小麦中重金属Cu、Pb、Cd、Ni、Cr、Hg、As和Zn的含量及污染程度。结果表明,土壤样品中Cd、Zn、Pb的含量均超过江苏省土壤背景值,Cr、Cu、Ni和As分别有25.64%、97.44%、92.31%和92.31%的土壤样品中超过江苏省土壤背景值,Hg的含量均在背景值以下;与国家土壤环境质量标准(GB15618—1995)中Ⅱ级标准相比,Cd的含量均超出标准限值,其它7种重金属元素含量均在标准限值以下。土壤中重金属相关分析表明,Cd、Cu、Cr、Ni、Pb、Zn、As具有相同的来源的可能性较大,而Hg与Cd、Cu、Cr、Ni、Pb、Zn、As的来源均不相同。以NY 861—2004为评价标准,小麦籽粒Pb、Cr、Hg、Ni、As样品超标率分别为100%、58.97%、33.33%、10.26%、2.56%,Cu、Zn和Cd没有样品超标,由此可见小麦籽粒中Pb的污染最为严重。采用单因子污染指数法、综合污染指数法和Hakanson潜在生态评价指数法以国家土壤环境质量标准(GB15618—1995)和江苏省土壤背景值为参比值,对农田土壤重金属污染进行评价,结果显示,从单项污染指数来看只有Cd达到重度污染水平,其它元素均在安全范围以内,从综合污染指数来看土壤重金属污染达到中度污染水平,从潜在生态评价指数法来看,研究区域表现为很强的生态危害,并以Cd为主要污染因子。     

Environmental exposure to cadmium and factors affecting trace-element metabolism and metal toxicity

In the general population, food constitutes the major environmental source of cadmium (Cd) in nonsmokers. It is established that leafy vegetables, roots, and grains (wheat or rice) can accumulate relatively high amounts of Cd from the soil. Beef liver and kidney and shellfish are also major dietary sources of Cd. The daily intake of Cd in various parts of the world is different and depends on both the dietary habits and concentration of Cd in foodstuffs. Because of the long biological half-life of Cd in humans and absence of any specific indicators of its toxicity, the environmental exposure of Cd should be monitored in various countries. Although environmental Cd poisoning is rare, there are isolated reports on excessive exposure to Cd in Japan and Shipham, a zinc-mining town in England. The body retention and toxicity of Cd depends on various factors, such as daily intake, the form of Cd in food, its interactions with essential elements, and nutritional status of the population. Since kidney is considered a critical organ in Cd toxicity, the indicators of renal dysfunction have been widely used for evaluation of Cd poisoning in occupationally exposed people. It is unclear whether similar indicators can be used for monitoring environmental Cd exposure.     

Concentrations of Lead,Cadmium, and Mercury in Halfbeaks (Hyporhampus affinis) from the East Java Coast,Indonesia and Human Health Hazard

The objectives of this study were to measure the levels of lead, cadmium, and mercury in the muscle tissues of halfbeaks (Hyporhampus affinis) captured at five stations along the East Java coast, Indonesia. This fish is one of the important species and consumed by local people as a cheap source of protein. We evaluated the hazard level posed by the metals in relation to the maximum residual limit for human consumption and to estimate the weekly intake and compare it with the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The Pb, Cd, and Hg concentrations in fish at all stations ranged from 0.006 to 0.023 mg/kg, 0.007 to 0.024 mg/kg, and 0.047 to 0.055 mg/kg wet weight, respectively. All samples of halfbeaks collected from this area appear to be safe for human consumption because their metals’ levels are below the permissible limit for human consumption and the maximum weekly intakes are below the recommended values of PTWI.     

Contents of pollutant and nutrient elements in rice and wheat grown on the neighboring fields

Because of recent agricultural policy to suppress rice production, a rather rare situation occurred in one prefecture in Japan that rice and winter wheat were grown in fields neighboring each other, rice being grown from May to October, and wheat from November to June of the next year. Grains of such rice and wheat were analyzed for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) by atomic absorption spectrometry, and eight nutrient minerals by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Concentrations of nutrient minerals were higher in wheat grains than in unpolished rice grains (without husk), and similar trends were observed also for Cd and Pb. Flour obtained by milling of the wheat grains had significantly less Cd and nutrient minerals than the mother grains, and such reduction was also observed by treatment of unpolished rice to polished grain. Pb concentration was also reduced by the polishing of rice. Pb in wheat flour appeared to be higher than that in whole grain. Comparisons between the final edible forms of the two cereals showed that K and cu were higher in polished rice than in wheat flour and that such may also be the case for Cd, whereas the reverse was the case for Ca and Fe, and possibly for Pb.     

Probabilistic segmentation and intensity estimation for microarray images

We describe a probabilistic approach to simultaneous image segmentation and intensity estimation for complementary DNA microarray experiments. The approach overcomes several limitations of existing methods. In particular, it (a) uses a flexible Markov random field approach to segmentation that allows for a wider range of spot shapes than existing methods, including relatively common 'doughnut-shaped' spots; (b) models the image directly as background plus hybridization intensity, and estimates the two quantities simultaneously, avoiding the common logical error that estimates of foreground may be less than those of the corresponding background if the two are estimated separately; and (c) uses a probabilistic modeling approach to simultaneously perform segmentation and intensity estimation, and to compute spot quality measures. We describe two approaches to parameter estimation: a fast algorithm, based on the expectation-maximization and the iterated conditional modes algorithms, and a fully Bayesian framework. These approaches produce comparable results, and both appear to offer some advantages over other methods. We use an HIV experiment to compare our approach to two commercial software products: Spot and Arrayvision.     

Deoxynivalenol in Mehlproben des Jahres 1999 aus dem Einzelhandel

To study the levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) in retail cereal products, wheat and rye samples were purchased in 1999 from supermarkets and “organic food” shops in Munich, Germany. DON was analysed by an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), 78 of these samples were additionally analysed by HPLC. The following contamination rates (%) and mean DON levels were found: wheat flour type 405 (n=42): 71%, 200 µg/kg; flour type 550 (n=9): 33%, 410 µg/kg; flour type 1050 (n=11): 91%, 370 µg/kg; bread-baking wheat premixes (n=14): 79%, 210 µg/kg; whole grain flour (n=20): 65%, 300 µg/kg; whole grain wheat (n=8): 75%, 280 µg/kg, wheat bran (n=20): 85%, 830 µg/kg; rye flour and grits (n=7): 29%, 120 µg/kg. HPLC confirmed the results obtained by EIA. Further analysis of 16 wheat flour (405) samples in May 2000 showed a similar frequency (69%) and mean DON level (270 µg/kg) as for samples from 1999. It is concluded that with DON levels in wheat for human consumption ranging from 200–400 µg/kg, the intake of DON has to be taken seriously in the light of the temporary tolerable daily intake of 1 µg DON per kg body weight as proposed within the European Union.     

Dietary Exposure to PCDD/Fs Through Animal Products in a Highly Polluted Area in Turkey

We present an estimation of dietary exposure to PCDD/Fs by animal products in Kocaeli, a highly polluted area in Turkey, based on current food data consumption. The calculation of the PCDD/F intakes by an exposure methodology concerning consumption habits of different receptor groups in Kocaeli was included. The data relate to the PCDD/F levels in food groups of animal origin (milk, egg, meat, chicken, and fish), food consumption rates, and the fractions of locally grown foods in total consumption were statistically assessed. Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate the ranges of PCDD/F doses through the consumption of animal products. The PCDD/F intakes through the consumption of animal products were calculated to average between 0.4–1.8 pg WHO-TEQ.kg^?1 bodyweight (bw).day^?1. The results are within the range of 1–4 pg WHO-TEQ.kg^?1 bw.day^?1, proposed as the tolerable daily intake by the World Health Organization. On the other hand, contributions of the consumption of different foods to the total PCDD/F intake and the results of sensitivity analysis showed that the PCDD/F intake in semi-urban and rural settings was determined primarily by the consumption of milk products, while consumption of meat and fish had a greater importance in urban settings.     

Biogenic and Risk Elements in Wines from the Slovak Market with the Estimation of Consumer Exposure

Wine consumption delivers macroelements and microelements necessary for the proper metabolism. On the other hand, wine can be an important source of toxic metals. The aim of this study was to estimate the concentrations of Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the Slovak and non-Slovak wines. The concentration of metals was evaluated with respect to the type, the alcohol content, and the age of Slovak wine. The general scheme of concentrations found was as follows Ca > Mg > Fe > Zn > Pb > Cd > Ni > Cu > Hg. The type of wine and the alcohol content do not have a significant impact on metal concentrations. Also, the age of wine has no influence on the mean concentration of metals, except for Zn. Metal concentrations in Slovak and non-Slovak wines indicate similar contents of metals, except for Ni. The contribution to both dietary reference values (DRVs) and provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) evaluations in the Slovak wine suggested low dietary exposure to Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ni, Zn, Cd, Hg, and Pb, respectively. However, we do not suggest that the consumption of all Slovak wines is healthy. The maximum Pb concentrations in Slovak wines exceed the maximum permitted level proposed by the European Commission. This might be proved by the results of the margin of the exposure (MOE) value evaluation in the samples containing the maximum Pb concentrations, showing a high risk of CKD and SBP in high and extreme consumption groups.