人β防御素3 融合蛋白在大肠杆菌中的表达、纯化与活性分析

近年来由于抗生素的不规范使用等多种原因,细菌耐药问题日益严重,人们正努力从各个方面来解决,其中机体天然产生的肽抗生素(peptide antibiotics)由于其对耐药菌的强大抗菌作用而受到人们的关注。肽抗生素是一种阳离子小分子多肽,在天然免疫和获得性免疫中都发挥着重要作用。防御素(defensin)是肽抗生素中较为重要的一种,主要来源于皮肤、呼吸道等的上皮组织,是正常机体抵抗外界病原微生物入侵的重要防线。人β-防御素3(human beta-defensin 3,hβD-3)参与人体免疫屏障,并因具有广谱抗菌和抗菌活性不被盐离子浓度抑制等特点而具特别的研究开发价值：提取中国人扁桃体组织总RNA,以RT-PCR技术扩增编码hβD-3成熟肽的cDNA并构建于原核表达载体pQE-80L,IPTG诱导表达后利用SDS-PAGE、免疫印记等方法对重组蛋白进行分析。重组蛋白表达量达到细菌表达总量的40％。重组蛋白自表达菌包涵体中提取后,经亲和层析法纯化目的蛋白达到电泳纯,经多步透析法复性,在体外抗菌实验中表现出了对金黄色葡萄球菌、多重耐药金黄色葡萄球菌等的抗菌活性,为进一步的研究和开发奠定了基础。     

以D-果糖为原料利用新型异构酶转化生产D-阿洛糖

稀少糖是自然界中含量稀少、化学合成困难的一类低热量单糖。D-阿洛糖是一种重要的稀少己醛糖,其具有减少活性自由基、抑制癌细胞增殖等独特的生理学功能。因此,以微生物发酵生产D-阿洛酮糖-3-差向异构酶(DPE)和L-鼠李糖异构酶(L-RhI)转化生产D-阿洛糖,成为近几年来国际研究的热点之一。文中分别克隆了来源于解纤维梭菌Clostridium cellulolyticum H10的DPE基因以及来源于枯草芽胞杆菌Bacillussubtilis 168的L-RhI基因,并分别使其在宿主菌B.subtilis及大肠杆菌Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)中得到了表达。进一步利用镍亲和层析和阴离子交换色谱等手段对这两种酶进行了纯化,并对这两种纯化后酶的转化能力进行了分析测定。结果表明,以D-果糖为原料利用两种异构酶依次转化获得D-阿洛酮糖及D-阿洛糖,其两步转化效率分别为27.34%和34.64%。     

糖元合成酶激酶3β对微管相关蛋白tau的磷酸化作用

tau蛋白是中枢神经系统中重要的微管相关蛋白,其功能受磷酸化调节.异常过度磷酸化的tau蛋白是阿尔茨海默病患者脑中神经纤维缠结的主要组成部分.糖元合成酶激酶3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)是重要的tau蛋白激酶之一,它虽可催化tau蛋白多个位点的磷酸化,但对不同位点,其催化效率不同.通过位点特异性、磷酸化依赖的tau蛋白抗体,用免疫印迹技术,检测GSK-3β对tau蛋白位点特异性的磷酸化作用及动力学.用双倒数作图,计算GSK-3β催化tau磷酸化以及各个位点磷酸化的Km值,并结合培养细胞中的实验,研究GSK-3β对tau蛋白磷酸化作用的位点特异性.结果显示,GSK-3β催化tau蛋白多个位点的磷酸化,其中包括Thr181、Ser199、Ser202、Thr205、Thr212、Thr217、Thr231、Ser396和Ser404,对不同的位点磷酸化作用,其Km值不同,GSK-3β对Ser396的Km值最低,即对Ser396位点的亲和性最高,催化其磷酸化的能力最强.在培养的细胞中,也显示了GSK-3β的表达引起Ser396位点的磷酸化最明显.     

小鼠不同细胞间组蛋白修饰变化对MafA基因转录表达的影响

目的通过比较不同细胞类型之间MafA基因转录起始区的组蛋白修饰差异,探讨组蛋白修饰对MafA基因转录表达的作用。方法采用染色质免疫共沉淀-实时定量PCR法检测小鼠胰岛素瘤β细胞（NIT-1）、NIH小鼠成纤维细胞（NIH3T3）及小鼠胚胎干细胞（mES）三者中的MafA和MLH1基因转录起始区组蛋白修饰（H3K4m3、H3K9m3和H3乙酰化）的状况。同时采用实时定量RT-PCR检测上述三种细胞各基因mRNA表达水平。分析基因的H3K4m3、H3K9m3和H3乙酰化修饰与基因表达之间的相互关系。结果 （1）以mES细胞为参照,NIT-1细胞MafA基因的转录起始区的H3K4m3修饰水平明显增高（P〈0.05）,H3K9m3修饰水平明显降低（P〈0.05）;NIH 3T3细胞MafA基因的转录起始区的H3K9m3修饰水平明显增高（P〈0.05）,H3K4m3修饰水平明显降低（P〈0.05）;（2）MafA基因的仅在NIT-1细胞表达,其表达与H3K4m3修饰存在直线相关（相关系数0.995）;与H3K9m3修饰存在直线负相关（相关系数-0.751）;（3）管家基因MLH1的表达与所检测组蛋白修饰无相关性。结论 H3K9m3与H3K4m3修饰能相互协调,共同调控MafA基因的表达,对胚胎干细胞向β细胞分化具有重要的意义。     

异染色质相关蛋白TRIM28调控锌指蛋白和原钙黏蛋白家族基因的转录

目的 TRIM28是一种异染色质相关蛋白,通过和SETDB1、HP1相互作用参与H3K9me3修饰的建立,本文旨在更深入地研究TRIM28的相关功能。方法 本文利用CRISPR/Cas9技术、染色质免疫共沉淀技术、免疫印迹技术和实时荧光定量PCR技术,建立HEK293F Trim28基因敲除细胞系,分析一系列实验数据结果。结果 Trim28主要抑制内源表达水平较低的基因转录,进一步分析发现Trim28调控锌指蛋白家族基因和原钙黏蛋白β家族基因的转录。在Trim28敲除细胞系中,锌指蛋白家族基因H3K27ac修饰、H3K4me1修饰和H3K4me3修饰都显著上升,H3K9me3修饰下降。原钙黏蛋白β家族基因的H3K4me3修饰显著上升,H3K9me3修饰下降。结论 这些结果提示TRIM28通过改变染色质的开放程度调控锌指蛋白和原钙黏蛋白β家族基因的转录,为更深入研究TRIM28的功能提供了新的思路。     

小分子,大作为:酮体D-β羟基丁酸在医疗领域的应用与展望北大核心CSCD

人体两大供能模式主要是通过碳水化合物代谢或脂肪代谢。日常饮食下,身体会优先选择葡萄糖作为主要的能量来源。但近年来,科学家们发现在限制碳水化合物供给的条件下可以促进机体的脂肪代谢,该饮食模式可能会成为一种改善人类健康的全新的方式。其中,间歇性进食、生酮饮食等受到了广泛的关注,特别是在运动减肥、代谢疾病、脑部健康以及预防心血管疾病方面的效果十分明显。脂肪代谢中最为关键的产物是D-β-羟基丁酸(酮体,D3HB),是组成微生物内聚物聚-D-β-羟基丁酸(PHB)的单体。D3HB是一个能够在不同细胞与组织器官中起到供能与保护作用的小分子物质。然而,仅靠饮食促发的营养性酮症会带来一定的副作用且需要经过非常长的适应期(3个月以上),因此,外源性D3HB酮体的补充逐渐成为一种更加新颖、便捷的方式,用于帮助人体快速进入营养性酮症并激发相应的功能作用。文中详细阐述了人体产生D3HB的过程与其代谢路径、D3HB在人体内的作用效果以及外源性D3HB酮体在近年来的应用研究进展。     

糖基转移酶β3GnT8／β3GalT7在多种肿瘤细胞中的表达

目的：探讨一种新的糖基转移酶β3GnT8／β3GalT7在多种肿瘤细胞中的mRNA表达情况。方法：运用半定量RT-PCR方法研究人β3GnT8／β3GalT7基因在11种恶性肿瘤细胞中的表达谱。结果：β3GnT8／β3GalT7基因在多种肿瘤细胞株中都有表达,在A549细胞中的表达最高,在SGC7901细胞中中度表达,在白血病细胞中的表达较低。结论：β3GnT8／β3GalT7基因在11种肿瘤细胞中的表达有显著差异。     

β3肾上腺素能受体激动剂的减脂机制

肥胖症是一种由于机体能量过剩所导致的慢性代谢性疾病.β3肾上腺素能受体是β肾上腺素能受体的一种亚型,主要存在于棕色脂肪及白色脂肪组织中,参与棕色脂肪组织的产热和白色脂肪组织的脂质分解以及白色脂肪棕色化的过程,在脂肪代谢中起到减脂作用.β3肾上腺素能受体激动剂能与β3肾上腺素能受体结合,从而参与脂肪代谢的过程.本文对近年...     

The human beta-defensin-3, an antibacterial peptide with multiple biological functions

A group of interesting molecules called defensins exhibit multiple functions but have been primarily recognized to possess a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities. Studies have reported two different types of defensins (α and β) from human and animals, a cyclic θ defensin from rhesus, and several defensin-like peptides from plants. There is no amino acid sequence homology between these peptides, but they all contain three Cys-Cys disulfide linkages while the connectivities are different. Human β-defensin-3 (HβD-3) is the most recently discovered member of the host-defense peptide family that has attracted much attention. This molecule is expressed either constitutively or induced upon a challenge, and a growing evidence indicates the involvement of such molecules in adaptive immunity as well. It has been shown to exhibit antibacterial activities towards Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as an ability to act as a chemo-attractant. Analysis of NMR structural data suggested a symmetrical dimeric form of this peptide in solution, which consists of three β strands and a short helix in the N-terminal region. While the disulfide linkages are known to provide the structural stability and stability against proteases, the biological relevance of this dimeric form was contradicted by another biological study. Since there is considerable current interest in developing HβD-3 for possible pharmaceutical applications, studies to further our understanding on the determinants of antibacterial activities and immunomodulatory function of HβD-3 are considered to be highly significant. The knowledge of its biosynthetic regulation will also help in understanding the role of HβD-3 in immunity. This article presents an overview of the expression and regulation of HβD-3 in humans, and the structure-function correlations among HβD-3 and its modified peptides are discussed emphasizing the functional importance. The future scope for studies on HβD-3 and design of short potent antimicrobial peptides, based on the native HβD-3 molecule, that do not interfere in the immunomodulatory function is also outlined.     

Calcium accumulation by chick intestinal mitochondria: Regulation by vitamin D-3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3

We have evaluated the effect of vitamin D-3 and its metabolite 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 on Ca²⁺ accumulation by chick intestinal mitochondria. Ca²⁺ accumulation appears to occur in two phases: an early, transient accumulation into an Na⁺-labile pool followed by an ATP-dependent accumulation into an Na⁺-resistant pool. Ca²⁺ accumulation is extensive at free Ca²⁺ concentrations greater than 3 · 10^?6 M in the presence of ATP. Ruthenium red and dinitrophenol block Ca²⁺ accumulation, but atractyloside does not. Oligomycin blocks ATP-supported accumulation completely with a partial inhibition of ATP and malate-supported accumulation. Little difference could be found in mitochondrial preparations from vitamin D-deficient chicks compared to those from vitamin D-3 (or 1,25(OH)₂D-3)-supplemented chicks with respect to respiratory control, oxygen consumption, efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation, affinity for Ca²⁺, or the rate and extent of ATP-supported Ca²⁺ accumulation. Intestinal cytosol stimulated Ca²⁺ accumulation, but this was not specific with respect to vitamin D status or tissue of origin, nor was it duplicated by chick intestinal Ca²⁺-binding protein. 30 ng/ml 1,25(OH)₂D-3 stimulated Ca²⁺ accumulation directly, regardless of the presence of intestinal cytosol. Other vitamin D metabolites were less potent: 25-hydroxyvitamin D-3 > 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 = vitamin D-3. Since increasing the free Ca²⁺ concentration from 3 · 10^?6 to 1 · 10^?5 M increased Ca²⁺ accumulation approx. 50-fold, whereas direct stimulation by 1,25(OH)₂D-3 in vitro increased Ca²⁺ accumulation less than 2-fold, we conclude that 1,25(OH)₂D-3 influences mitochondrial accumulation of Ca²⁺ in vivo primarily by altering cytosol concentrations of free Ca²⁺.     

Serum-free culture of Japanese quail kidney cells regulation of vitamin D metabolism

Cells obtained from male quail kidneys by digestion with collagenase and hyaluronidase were plated and maintained in a chemically defined, serum-free medium. Culture dishes (35 mm) were inoculated with 1.5 · 10⁶ cells which became confluent in 5 days. The cells maintained an epithelial-like morphology over the entire culture period. During a 2 h incubation the cells metabolized 25–30% of the 10 nM 25-hydroxyvitamin D-3 (25-OH-D-3) provided. Seven metabolites were chromotographically separated on Sephadex LH-20. Three have been identified as 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 (1,25(OH)₂D-3), 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 (24,25(OH)₂D-3) and 1α,24,25-trihhydroxyvitamin D-3 (1,24,25(OH)₃D-3). The activities of the 25-OH-D-3:1α- and 24-hydroxylases increased eight times faster than the cell number in 5 days. Preincubation of the cells with 10 nM 25-OH-D-3 or 1,25(OH)₂D-3 decreased 1,25(OH)₂D-3 synthesis, and increased both 24,25(OH)₂D-3 and metabolite IV synthesis. The decrease in 25-OH-D-3:1α-hydroxylase activity required a 2 h preincubation with 25-OH-D-3, while stimulation of 25-OH-D-3:24-hydroxylase activity and metabolite IV production required a 6 h preincubation. Incubations of cells for 1 h with parathyroid hormone resulted in a 30-fold increase in cyclic AMP in the medium. A 6 h preincubation with parathyroid hormone decreased 24,25-(OH)₂D-3 synthesis 50% relative to control cells. These results demonstrate the amenability of this system for studying the regulation of 25-OH-D-3 metabolism, as well as its use for other in vitro studies on renal cell function in a chemically defined culture system.     

[3H]Spiperone Labels Non-Cyclase-Linked Dopamine Receptors in the Ventral Tegmental Area of Rat Brain

Abstract: The binding of [³H]spiperone, a neuroleptic/dopamine receptor ligand, to membranes of the ventral tegmental area of the rat was studied in vitro and found to be rapid, saturable, reversible, and of high affinity. Specific binding was displaced by the dopaminergic agonists dopamine, apomorphine, and 2-amino-6,7-dihydroxytetralin, and stereospecifically by the neuroleptic drugs butaclamol and flupenthixol. Bromocryptine and other ergots displaced the binding, as did the D-2 antagonists domperidone, molindone, metoclopramide, and sulpiride. Noradrenergic, histaminergic, and serotonergic components of the binding were not detected in displacement studies with various agonists and antagonists. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that [³H]spiperone labels dopamine receptors in the ventral tegmental area that are not linked to adenylate cyclase and are therefore likely to be of the D-2 type.     

Role of Astrocytes in Depolarization-Coupled Release of Glutamate in Cerebellar Cultures

Release of preloaded D-[3H]aspartate in response to depolarization induced by high potassium, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA) or the endogenous agonist glutamate was studied using cultured glutamatergic cerebellar granule neurons, cerebellar astrocytes, and corresponding cocultures. Release from the vesicular and the cytoplasmic glutamate pools, respectively, was distinguished employing the competitive, non-transportable glutamate transport inhibitor DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (DL-TBOA). The results indicate that the release in response to AMPA (30 microM) in the presence of cyclothiazide (50 microM) to block desensitization, was of a vesicular origin. Pulses of 55 mM K+ caused a DL-TBOA resistant efflux of preloaded D-[3H]aspartate from astrocytes, indicating that this release was not mediated by glutamate transporters. The results furthermore support the notion of an important function of the astrocytes in the uptake of released glutamate, because DL-TBOA caused a large, apparent increase in the depolarization-coupled release of preloaded D-[3H]aspartate in the cocultures, compared to neuronal monocultures.     

Uptake and Release of D-Aspartate in the Guinea Pig Cochlear Nucleus

Abstract: This study attempted to determine if l -glutamate (L-Glu) and/or l -aspartate (L-Asp) might be the transmitters of neurons that provide synaptic endings to the cochlear nucleus of the medulla. The uptake and release of D-[³H]aspartate (D-Asp), a putative marker for l -Glu and l -Asp, were measured in the guinea pig cochlear nucleus before and after destruction of the cochlear afferents by cochlear ablation. The cochlear nucleus was dissected into the anteroventral (AVCN), posteroventral (PVCN), and dorsal (DCN) cochlear nuclei. Subdivisions from unlesioned animals took up D-Asp, achieving concentrations in the tissues that were 13–20 times that in the medium. Subsequently, electrical stimulation evoked a Ca²⁺-dependent release of part of the D-Asp from each subdivision. Disarticulation of the middle ear ossicles, which attenuates acoustic stimulation, produced a modest inhibition of D-Asp release in each subdivision, but did not alter the uptake of D-Asp. Cochlear ablation strongly depressed both the uptake and the release of D-Asp in each subdivision, presumably as a result of destruction of the cochlear nerve endings in the cochlear nucleus. Nevertheless, after lesions, there was a preservation of the uptake and release of D-Asp in the DCN relative to the AVCN and PVCN. These residual activities in the DCN may be mediated by the axonal endings of the granule cells of the cochlear nucleus. The present findings support the hypothesis that the granule cells of the cochlear nucleus, as well as the cochlear nerve fibers, use l -Glu and/or l -Asp as transmitters.     

Decreased Uptake and Release of D-Aspartate in the Guinea Pig Spinal Cord After Dorsal Root Section

This study attempts to determine if L-glutamate and/or L-aspartate may be transmitters of dorsal sensory neurons. The uptake and the electrically evoked release of D-[3H]aspartate, a putative marker for L-glutamate and L-aspartate, were measured in the cervical enlargement (segments C4-T1) of the guinea pig spinal cord before and after cutting dorsal roots C5-T1 on the right side. The uptake and the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also were measured as indices of the integrity of GABAergic neurons in the spinal cord. The cervical enlargement was excised and divided into left and right halves, then into dorsal and ventral quadrants. Quadrants from unlesioned animals took up D-aspartate and GABA, achieving concentrations in the tissues which were 14-25 times that in the medium. Subsequently, electrical stimulation evoked a Ca2+-dependent release of D-aspartate and of GABA. The uptake and release of D-aspartate and GABA were similar in tissues taken from intact and sham-operated animals. However, dorsal rhizotomy, without damage to dorsal radicular or spinal blood vessels, depressed the uptake (by 22-29%) and the release (by 50%) of D-aspartate only in quadrants ipsilateral to the lesion. The uptake and the release of GABA were unchanged. In transverse sections of the cervical enlargement, stained to reveal degenerating fibers, by far the heaviest loss of axons occurred in the cuneate fasciculus and in the gray matter ipsilateral to the cut dorsal roots. These findings suggest that the synaptic endings of dorsal sensory neurons probably mediate the uptake and the release of D-aspartate and, therefore, may use L-glutamate or L-aspartate as a transmitter. When spinal blood vessels were damaged during dorsal rhizotomy, the deficits in D-aspartate uptake and release were larger than those in the absence of vascular damage and were accompanied by deficits in GABA uptake and release. These findings imply that vascular damage results in the loss of intraspinal neurons, some of which probably mediate the uptake and release of D-aspartate and, therefore, may use L-glutamate and/or L-aspartate as a transmitter.     

Decreased Uptake and Release of D-Aspartate in the Guinea Pig Spinal Cord After Partial Cordotomy

This study attempts to determine if L-glutamate and/or L-aspartate may be transmitters of neural tracts descending from the brain to the spinal cord. The uptake and electrically evoked release of D-[3H]aspartate, a putative marker for L-glutamate and L-aspartate, were measured in the cervical enlargement of the guinea pig spinal cord. These activities were compared using unlesioned animals and others with a lesion on the right side of the spinal cord. Partial cordotomy (segment C5) produced a heavy loss of descending fibers, a small loss of primary sensory fibers, and a depression of the uptake and the Ca2+ -dependent, electrically evoked release of D-aspartate ipsilateral and caudal to the lesion. Contralaterally, there was a moderate loss of corticospinal fibers, some loss of other descending axons, and a depression of D-aspartate release. Dorsal rhizotomy (segments C4-T1) produced a heavy loss of primary sensory fibers ipsilateral to the lesion. Ipsilaterally, but not contralaterally, the uptake and release of D-aspartate were depressed. Degeneration after partial cordotomy in combination with dorsal rhizotomy was assumed to be the sum of that produced by each lesion separately. This combined lesion depressed D-aspartate uptake ipsilaterally and depressed D-aspartate release on both sides of the cervical enlargement. None of the lesions altered the uptake and the evoked release of [3H]GABA. These findings support the hypothesis that the synaptic endings of one or more neural tracts descending from the brain to the spinal cord mediate the uptake and release of D-aspartate and, therefore, may use L-glutamate or L-aspartate as a transmitter.     

D-Aspartate Uptake and Release in the Guinea Pig Spinal Cord After Partial Ablation of the Cerebral Cortex

This study attempts to determine if L-glutamate and L-aspartate may be transmitters of the guinea pig corticospinal tract. Unilateral ablations were made of the frontal and parietal neocortex which destroyed most of the motor and somatosensory areas in the right cerebral hemisphere. In lesioned animals, transverse sections of the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord (segments C6--T1) were stained to reveal degenerating fibers. Degeneration of axons first appeared 4 days after surgery, reached a maximum on the seventh day, and began to wane by the ninth day. The most prominent loss of axons appeared deep in the dorsal funiculus and in laminae IV-IX of the gray matter contralateral to the cortical lesion. Ipsilaterally, there was very sparse degeneration of fibers in the dorsal and ventral funiculi and in the spinal gray matter. The uptake and release of D-[3H]aspartate, a putative nonmetabolizable marker for L-glutamate and L-aspartate, were measured in dissected quadrants of the cervical enlargement taken from intact and lesioned animals. The uptake and the electrically evoked, Ca2+-dependent release of D-[3H]aspartate were depressed by 29-35% at 4 and 7 days after surgery, but only in tissue that was contralateral to the cortical ablation. The lesion had no effect on the uptake and release of exogenous gamma-[14C]aminobutyric acid, which were measured as indices of the postlesion integrity of neurons in the spinal gray matter. These findings suggest that the synaptic endings of corticospinal fibers probably mediate the uptake and release of D-[3H]aspartate and, therefore, may use L-glutamate and/or L-aspartate as a transmitter.     

Specific [3H]Piflutixol Binding to CHAPS-Solubilised Rat Striatal Preparations Involves Dopamine D-2 but Not D-1 Binding Sites

[3H]Piflutixol binding to rat striatal membrane preparations identifies both D-1 and D-2 sites. We used [3H]piflutixol to characterise those binding sites present in 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS)-solubilised rat striatal preparations. The specific binding of [3H]piflutixol, as defined using cis-flupenthixol, to CHAPS-solubilised rat striatal tissue was saturable and of high affinity. Specific [3H]piflutixol binding to the solubilised preparations was displaced stereoselectively by the isomers of butaclamol and to an equal extent by both cis-flupenthixol and (+/-)-sulpiride. A positive correlation was found between the capacity of a range of drugs to displace [3H]piflutixol binding and the displacement of [3H]spiperone to the same preparations. The Bmax of [3H]piflutixol binding was not different from that of [3H]spiperone binding to the same preparation. These studies suggest that, in contrast to specific binding of membrane preparations, the specific binding of [3H]piflutixol to CHAPS-solubilised preparations involves mainly D-2 sites. Specific [3H]piflutixol binding, in contrast to [3H]spiperone binding, showed only slow dissociation from soluble preparations. The binding of [3H]piflutixol to CHAPS-solubilised preparations was retained during passage through a gel filtration column. This prelabelling of solubilised striatal preparations using [3H]piflutixol may aid in the purification of CHAPS-solubilised rat striatal D-2 sites.