Global Distributions of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

We examined potential large-scale controls over the distribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and their host plants. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that AM fungi should be more prevalent in biomes where nutrients are primarily present in mineral, and not organic, forms. Values of percentage root length colonized (%RLC) by AM fungi, AM abundance, and host plant availability were compiled or calculated from published studies to determine biome-level means. Altogether, 151 geographic locations and nine biomes were represented. Percent RLC differed marginally significantly among biomes and was greatest in savannas. AM abundance (defined as total standing root length colonized by AM fungi) varied 63-fold, with lowest values in boreal forests and highest values in temperate grasslands. Biomes did not differ significantly in the percentage of plant species that host AM fungi, averaging 75%. Contrary to the hypothesis, %RLC, AM abundance, and host plant availability were not related to the size, influx, or turnover rate of soil organic matter pools. Instead, AM abundance was positively correlated with standing stocks of fine roots. The global pool of AM biomass within roots might approach 1.4 Pg dry weight. We note that regions harboring the largest stocks of AM fungi are also particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic nitrogen deposition, which could potentially alter global distributions of AM fungi in the near future.     

The Ecology of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhiza is a mutually beneficial biological association between species in the fungal phylum Glomeromycota and higher plants roots. The symbiosis is thought to have afforded green plants the opportunity to invade dry land ca 450 Ma ago and the vast majority of extant terrestrial plants retain this association. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi perform various ecological functions in exchange for host photosynthetic carbon that almost always contribute to the fitness of hosts from an individual to community level. Recent AM fungal research, increasingly delving into the ‘Black Box’, suggests that species in this phylum may play a key facilitative role in below-ground micro- and meso-organism community dynamics, even more perhaps, that of a bioengineer. The ubiquitous nature of the symbiosis in extant flora and the fact that variations from the AM symbiosis are recent events suggest that Glomeromycota and plant roots coevolved. This review considers aspects of AM fungal ecology emphasizing past and present importance of the phylum in niche to global ecosystem function. Nutrient exchange, evolution, taxonomy, phenology, below-ground microbial interaction, propagule dissemination, invasive plants interactions, the potential role in phytoremediation and some of the factors affecting AM fungal biology are discussed. We conclude that it is essential to include AM association in any study of higher plants in natural environments in order to provide an holistic understanding of ecosystems.     

丛枝菌根共生的信号转导及其相关基因

大多数植物根系能够与某些真菌形成相互依存、互惠互利的菌根共生关系.植物在提供给丛枝菌根真菌赖以生存的碳源的同时,也通过真菌从土壤中吸取矿质营养.丛枝菌根能够促进植物生长,提高植物抗逆性和抵御外界不良环境,对提高农林业生产效率、增强生态系统稳定性及维护生物多样性具有重要的意义.菌根的形成是一系列信号分子交换传递和共生相关基因表达调控的结果.在信号转导途径中,共生受体样蛋白激酶、离子通道和钙/钙调依赖性蛋白激酶基因的表达对菌根的形成是不可或缺的.就丛枝菌根共生的信号转导机制以及信号途径中3个必需基因的结构、功能及研究现状进行了综述.     

Amino Acid Uptake in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Plants

We examined the extent to which arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi root improved the acquisition of simple organic nitrogen (ON) compounds by their host plants. In a greenhouse-based study, we used quantum dots (fluorescent nanoparticles) to assess uptake of each of the 20 proteinaceous amino acids by AM-colonized versus uncolonized plants. We found that AM colonization increased uptake of phenylalanine, lysine, asparagine, arginine, histidine, methionine, tryptophan, and cysteine; and reduced uptake of aspartic acid. Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization had the greatest effect on uptake of amino acids that are relatively rare in proteins. In addition, AM fungi facilitated uptake of neutral and positively-charged amino acids more than negatively-charged amino acids. Overall, the AM fungi used in this study appeared to improve access by plants to a number of amino acids, but not necessarily those that are common or negatively-charged.     

丛枝菌根(AM)对根瘤菌趋化作用研究

对紫穗槐非接种(AM-+Rh-)、单接种根瘤菌(Rh+)、单接种AM真菌(AM+)和双接种(AM++Rh+)处理, 研究AM真菌、根瘤菌对宿主植物紫穗槐侵染情况, 并采用经过改良的根部微生物趋化试验手段研究AM真菌侵染根系后分泌物对根瘤菌的趋化性。实验结果表明：在接种AM++ Rh+情况下, 使宿主先于AM+、Rh+处理形成根瘤, 且双接种能够显著提高菌根侵染率; 在共生体形成期间, AM真菌与根瘤菌之间存在着识别互动反应和一定的信号物质, 接种AM真菌对根瘤菌有正趋化作用; 同时, 外界温度对AM真菌-宿主植物---根瘤菌三者共生体初始信号识别也起到一定的调控作用。     

丛枝菌根(AM)对根瘤菌趋化作用研究

对紫穗槐非接种(AM- Rh-)、单接种根瘤菌(Rh )、单接种AM真菌(AM )和双接种(AM Rh )处理,研究AM真菌、根瘤茵对宿主植物紫穗槐侵染情况,并采用经过改良的根部微生物趋化试验手段研究AM真菌侵染根系后分泌物对根瘤茵的趋化性.实验结果表明:在接种AM Rh 情况下,使宿主先于AM ,Rh '处理形成根瘤,且双接种能够显著提高菌根侵染率;在共生体形成期间,AM真菌与根瘤菌之间存在着识别互动反应和一定的信号物质,接种AM真菌对根瘤菌有正趋化作用;同时,外界温度对AM真菌.宿主植物一根瘤茵三者共生体初始信号识别也起到一定的调控作用.     

长期定位施肥土壤中的丛枝菌根真菌

从连续26年长期定位施肥土壤中的玉米和小麦根围采集土样,从中鉴定出丛枝茵根(Arbuscular Myc- orrguza,AM)真菌5属19种,包括Glomus属11种:G．caledonium,G．constrictum,G．eburneum,G．ebunicatum, G．hyderabadensis,G．mossese,G．sinuosum,G．tortuosum,G．versiforme,G．sp1,G．sp2;Acaulospora属2种: A．excacota,A．sp;Gigaspora属2种:Gi．margarita,Gi．sp;Scutellospora属3种:S．cerradensis,S．coralloidea, S．pellucida;Archaespora属1种:Ar．leptoticha。     

丛枝菌根真菌分类最新进展

近10a来,随着分子生物学技术在丛枝菌根(arbuscularmycorrhiza,AM)研究中的应用,AM真菌分类学得到迅速发展。重点介绍AM真菌的最新分类系统,并对其发展简史作一简单回顾。     

Callus,shoot and hairy root formation in vitro as affected by the sensitivity to auxin and ethylene in tomato mutants

We analyzed the impact of ethylene and auxin disturbances on callus, shoots and Agrobacterium rhizogenes-induced hairy root formation in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). The auxin low-sensitivity dgt mutation showed little hairy root initiation, whereas the ethylene low-sensitivity Nr mutation did not differ from the control Micro-Tom cultivar. Micro-Tom and dgt hairy roots containing auxin sensitivity/biosynthesis rol and aux genes formed prominent callus onto media supplemented with cytokinin. Under the same conditions, Nr hairy roots did not form callus. Double mutants combining Rg1, a mutation conferring elevated shoot formation capacity, with either dgt or Nr produced explants that formed shoots with little callus proliferation. The presence of rol + aux genes in Rg1 hairy roots prevented shoot formation. Taken together, the results suggest that although ethylene does not affect hairy root induction, as auxin does, it may be necessary for auxin-induced callus formation in tomato. Moreover, excess auxin prevents shoot formation in Rg1.     

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Plant Production of Temperate Agroecosystems

Abstract

The importance of arbuscular fungi for plant development and health is now widely demonstrated. However, although it is more and more evident that they are not only an integral part of many cultivated plants but also an essential component of soil fertility, their rational use in plant production is still in its infancy. Because of their role as bioregulators, biofertilizers, and biocontrol agents, they represent potentially important tools for new orientations in agriculture, particularly in Europe, where there is increasing demand for development of new plant management techniques that are less dependent on chemical inputs. The discovery of mycmutants turned out to be an excellent tool for better understanding the ecophysiology of arbuscular mycorrhizas under field conditions and for allowing considerable progress in our knowledge on the genes controlling this symbiosis. Progress in this area, together with ongoing generation of specific nucleic acid probes for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, appear to be essential for promoting mycorrhizal biotechnology. Despite this, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can already be exploited successfully in certain areas of plant production, such as orchards and ornamental nurseries.     

Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Populations in Heavy-Metal-Contaminated Soils

High concentrations of heavy metals have been shown to adversely affect the size, diversity, and activity of microbial populations in soil. The aim of this work was to determine how the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is affected by the addition of sewage-amended sludge containing heavy metals in a long-term experiment. Due to the reduced number of indigenous AM fungal (AMF) propagules in the experimental soils, several host plants with different life cycles were used to multiply indigenous fungi. Six AMF ecotypes were found in the experimental soils, showing consistent differences with regard to their tolerance to the presence of heavy metals. AMF ecotypes ranged from very sensitive to the presence of metals to relatively tolerant to high rates of heavy metals in soil. Total AMF spore numbers decreased with increasing amounts of heavy metals in the soil. However, species richness and diversity as measured by the Shannon-Wiener index increased in soils receiving intermediate rates of sludge contamination but decreased in soils receiving the highest rate of heavy-metal-contaminated sludge. Relative densities of most AMF species were also significantly influenced by soil treatments. Host plant species exerted a selective influence on AMF population size and diversity. We conclude based on the results of this study that size and diversity of AMF populations were modified in metal-polluted soils, even in those with metal concentrations that were below the upper limits accepted by the European Union for agricultural soils.     

丛枝菌根真菌对植物生长影响的研究

菌根是自然界中一种极为普遍和重要的共生现象,其中分布最为广泛的菌根类型就是丛枝菌根,可以增强植物从土壤中获取水分的能力,改善植物根系对磷、镉等矿质元素及养分的吸收,从而促进植物的生长。本文综述了丛枝菌根真菌对植物生长影响的概况。有关丛枝菌根真菌对植物水分和矿质营养的利用,尤其是磷素营养的研究较为深入,而对植物光合特性的研究较少,这些研究工作为深入理解菌根真菌与植物的相互关系提供基础资料。     

丛枝菌根形成过程及其信号转导途径

丛枝菌根是由一类土壤中古老的丛枝菌根真菌与植物根系形成的互利互惠共生体。通过共生作用丛枝菌根真菌帮助宿主植物提高水和矿质营养（特别是磷）的吸收效率。作为回报,大约20%的光合作用产物被转移到丛枝菌根真菌中,供其完成自身的生活史。丛枝菌根形成的过程中,需要植物与丛枝菌根真菌之间进行一系列信号分子的识别、交换以及信号转导作用,这一过程由一系列植物和菌根真菌的基因控制。首先,植物会分泌一种植物激素——独角金内酯来诱导菌根真菌加速分支,而菌根真菌也会分泌脂质几丁寡糖促进植物与其形成菌根。加速分支的菌根真菌接触到植物根部以后,会附着在植物根的表皮并形成附着胞,通过附着胞穿透植物根的表皮,最后进入维管组织附近的皮层细胞并在其中不断进行二叉分支,形成特有的丛枝结构。通过对模式植物共生现象的研究,已经发现很多植物基因参与到共生形成的信号转导过程中,包括早期植物反应的基因、菌根与根瘤共生共同需要的转导因子以及菌根特异的信号分子等。本文对菌根的形成过程及信号转导途径进行详细的介绍,为人们深入研究菌根关系提供参考。     

Progress and Challenges in Agricultural Applications of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhiza is a widespread interaction between plant roots and mutualistic fungi that both promotes plant mineral nutrition and supports stability in many natural ecosystems. Given the demand in current agriculture for these ecosystem services, it appears desirable to further integrate this interaction in current management schemes. While two different approaches can be identified in this regard, a number of problems have limited the agricultural application of mycorrhiza to date. In this review, the sensitivity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to certain agricultural management methods, the functional variability of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and the variability of plant responsiveness will be discussed in particular. In addition we will focus on recent advances in the study of mycorrhiza in natural ecosystems, and illustrate how such knowledge might be used to further the integration of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in agricultural regimes, and so increase the sustainability and robustness of current practice.     

云南部分地区湿地植物的丛枝菌根初报

用碱解离、酸性品红染色法对昆明、澄江、建水、通海、石屏、东川和禄劝等地的15个科32种湿地植物的丛枝菌根状况进行了调查,共发现有11种植物形成丛枝菌根,占34％。从湿地植物根际土壤中分离、鉴定出分属于4个属的丛枝菌根真菌共16种,无梗囊霉属（Acaulospora）和球囊霉属（Glomus）是湿地土壤中的优势类群（94％）。摩西球囊霉（G．mosseae）占孢子总数的88％,是湿地土壤中的优势种。     

Altered proteoglycan synthesis disrupts feather pattern formation in chick embryonic skin

We have tested the role of proteoglycans in the development of feather pattern by culturing 7-day-old embryonic chick skins on medium containing para-nitrophenyl-beta-D-xyloside (2 mM). Xylosides compete with core proteins of proteoglycans by acting as exogenous acceptors for the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans leading to the synthesis of under- or unglycosylated core proteins and free glycosaminoglycans. We have demonstrated that xyloside treatment alters the structure of the proteoglycans synthesized by embryonic skin and disrupts the feather pattern. The altered pattern is seen as the fusion of individual feather rudiments. Fusion can occur diagonally, and in an anteroposterior and mediolateral direction. The effect induced by the disruption of proteoglycan structure takes place during the first 24 hr of culture during which time all the rows of feather rudiments are being established. The effect is reversible if the skins are returned to control medium after 24 hr but not after 48 hr of treatment with xyloside. Once established during the first 24 hr the feather pattern can only be slightly distorted by the xyloside treatment. The results are interpreted to mean that proteoglycans play a developmental role in the establishment of the feather pattern but not in its maintenance, suggesting that the two processes are under different developmental control. The altered feather pattern obtained by disrupting proteoglycan structure is highly similar to that obtained when skins are cultured in the presence of antibodies to L-CAM (W.J. Gallin, C.-M., Chuong, L.H. Finkel, and G.M. Edelman (1986), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 8235-8239). This observation suggests that there may be a functional relationship between the extracellular matrix and cell adhesion molecules in the establishment of feather pattern.     

Phosphorus and Nitrogen Regulate Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in Petunia hybrida

Phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrient elements that are needed by plants in large amounts. The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and soil fungi improves phosphorus and nitrogen acquisition under limiting conditions. On the other hand, these nutrients influence root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi and symbiotic functioning. This represents a feedback mechanism that allows plants to control the fungal symbiont depending on nutrient requirements and supply. Elevated phosphorus supply has previously been shown to exert strong inhibition of arbuscular mycorrhizal development. Here, we address to what extent inhibition by phosphorus is influenced by other nutritional pathways in the interaction between Petunia hybrida and R. irregularis. We show that phosphorus and nitrogen are the major nutritional determinants of the interaction. Interestingly, the symbiosis-promoting effect of nitrogen starvation dominantly overruled the suppressive effect of high phosphorus nutrition onto arbuscular mycorrhiza, suggesting that plants promote the symbiosis as long as they are limited by one of the two major nutrients. Our results also show that in a given pair of symbiotic partners (Petunia hybrida and R. irregularis), the entire range from mutually symbiotic to parasitic can be observed depending on the nutritional conditions. Taken together, these results reveal complex nutritional feedback mechanisms in the control of root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.