小窝蛋白-1与脑胶质瘤

小窝蛋白-1（caveolin-1,Cav-1）是胞膜窖（caveolae）的标志性蛋白质。Cav-1在多种细胞的生命活动中起重要作用。大量证据表明,Cav-1参与乳腺癌、肝细胞癌、胰腺癌、前列腺癌、肾透明细胞癌等多种肿瘤的发生发展过程。胶质瘤是中枢神经系统恶性肿瘤之一,由于脑血屏障的存在,很多药物很难到达病灶,因而死亡率极高。近年来发现,Cav-1是胶质瘤细胞增殖的负调控因子,能够降低胶质瘤的迁移和侵袭能力。此外,Cav-1能够增加胶质瘤血瘤屏障的通透性。本文简要综述了近年来Cav-1在脑胶质瘤发生发展及其对血瘤屏障的调节作用的新进展,旨在为胶质瘤的临床治疗提供新的思路。     

胶质瘤发病相关蛋白1与肿瘤

胶质瘤发病相关蛋白1（glioma pathogenesis-related protein 1,GLIPR1）隶属于CAP蛋白超家族,由1个指导分泌的信号肽、1个保守的富含半胱氨酸的结构域及1个跨膜结构域组成CAP。近年研究表明,胶质瘤发病相关蛋白1启动子甲基化水平决定了其在胶质瘤和黑色素瘤中的表达上调。而在前列腺癌、肺癌、骨肉瘤以及白血病等肿瘤中表达下调。在不同类型的肿瘤中,GLIPR1通过不同的信号通路参与调控肿瘤的发展进程。本文针对胶质瘤发病相关蛋白1参与调控多种肿瘤发生及发展的机制进行综述,以期为上述肿瘤的诊断与治疗提供重要的线索。     

BRMS1 Suppresses Glioma Progression by Regulating Invasion,Migration and Adhesion of Glioma Cells

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) is a metastasis suppressor gene in several solid tumors. However, the expression and function of BRMS1 in glioma have not been reported. In this study, we investigated whether BRMS1 play a role in glioma pathogenesis. Using the tissue microarray technology, we found that BRMS1 expression is significantly decreased in glioma compared with tumor adjacent normal brain tissue (P<0.01, χ² test) and reduced BRMS1 staining is associated with WHO stages (P<0.05, χ² test). We also found that BRMS1 was significantly downregulated in glioma cell lines compared to normal human astrocytes (P<0.01, χ² test). Furthermore, we demonstrated that BRMS1 overexpression inhibited glioma cell invasion by suppressing uPA, NF-κB, MMP-2 expression and MMP-2 enzyme activity. Moreover, our data showed that overexpression of BRMS1 inhibited glioma cell migration and adhesion capacity compared with the control group through the Src-FAK pathway. Taken together, this study suggested that BRMS1 has a role in glioma development and progression by regulating invasion, migration and adhesion activities of cancer cells.     

人脑胶质瘤中的IDH1/2突变

胶质母细胞瘤的基因组突变分析中发现的异柠檬酸脱氢酶(isocitrate dehydrogenase,IDH1)突变对胶质瘤的认识具有突破性意义。随后,在胶质瘤中发现了IDH1的R132碱基和IDH2的R172碱基突变。IDH1突变较多的发生在WHOII-III级胶质瘤和继发胶质母细胞瘤中。这种突变改变了异柠檬酸脱氢酶的结构,从而使将异柠檬酸转化为a-酮戊二酸的能力丧失,而获得将a-酮戊二酸转化为2-羟基戊二酸这一新的酶活性。在临床中,IDH1和IDH2突变已经显示对胶质瘤患者有诊断和预后意义。同时,现今也发展了一些检测方法。     

Metabolic Reprogramming in Mutant IDH1 Glioma Cells

BackgroundMutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) 1 have been reported in over 70% of low-grade gliomas and secondary glioblastomas. IDH1 is the enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate while mutant IDH1 catalyzes the conversion of α-ketoglutarate into 2-hydroxyglutarate. These mutations are associated with the accumulation of 2-hydroxyglutarate within the tumor and are believed to be one of the earliest events in the development of low-grade gliomas. The goal of this work was to determine whether the IDH1 mutation leads to additional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)–detectable changes in the cellular metabolome.MethodsTwo genetically engineered cell models were investigated, a U87-based model and an E6/E7/hTERT immortalized normal human astrocyte (NHA)-based model. For both models, wild-type IDH1 cells were generated by transduction with a lentiviral vector coding for the wild-type IDH1 gene while mutant IDH1 cells were generated by transduction with a lentiviral vector coding for the R132H IDH1 mutant gene. Metabolites were extracted from the cells using the dual-phase extraction method and analyzed by ¹H-MRS. Principal Component Analysis was used to analyze the MRS data.ResultsPrincipal Component Analysis clearly discriminated between wild-type and mutant IDH1 cells. Analysis of the loading plots revealed significant metabolic changes associated with the IDH1 mutation. Specifically, a significant drop in the concentration of glutamate, lactate and phosphocholine as well as the expected elevation in 2-hydroxyglutarate were observed in mutant IDH1 cells when compared to their wild-type counterparts.ConclusionThe IDH1 mutation leads to several, potentially translatable MRS-detectable metabolic changes beyond the production of 2-hydroxyglutarate.     

IDH1基因突变在胶质瘤中的研究进展

胶质瘤是颅内最常见的恶性肿瘤,发病率逐年增高。越来越多的证据表明IDH1基因突变与胶质瘤密切相关。本文就近年来有关胶质瘤与IDH1基因突变的研究作一综述。IDH1基因编码胞浆内NADP依赖的异柠檬酸脱氢酶,后者能够对异柠檬酸进行催化生成α-酮戊二酸。在40%的胶质瘤中存在IDH1突变,在继发性胶质母细胞瘤中变异率最高。作为一种代谢的关键酶,IDH1突变后可以将α-KG转变成2-HG,后者具有促进细胞增殖和促进肿瘤发生的作用。而且,IDH1突变可以导致胶质瘤代谢和表观遗传学方面的改变。同时,IDH1突变可以通过增加HIF-1α水平及活性增加血管生成。目前在不同级别的胶质瘤当中,IDH1突变已经成为一个与预后密切相关的独立预测因素。对IDH1突变的研究有助于深入了解胶质瘤病因及干预措施的具体机制,有助于胶质瘤的分子水平分类和治疗。     

Glioma angiogenesis

Brain tumors exhibit marked and aberrant blood vessel formation indicating angiogenic endothelial cells as a potential target for brain tumor treatment. The brain tumor blood vessels are used for nutrient delivery, and possibly for cancer cell migration. The process of angiogenesis is complex and involves multiple players. The current angiogenesis inhibitors used in clinical trials mostly target single angiogenic proteins and so far show limited effects on tumor growth. Besides the conventional angiogenesis inhibitors, RNA-based inhibitors such as small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are being analyzed for their capacity to silence the message of proteins involved in neovascularization. More recently, a new family of non-coding RNAs, named angiomirs [microRNAs (miRNAs) involved in angiogenesis] has emerged. These small RNAs have the advantage over siRNAs in that they have the potential of silencing multiple messages at the same time and therefore they might become therapeutically relevant in a “one-hit multiple-target” context against brain tumor angiogenesis. In this review we will discuss the emerging technologies in anti-angiogenesis emphasizing on RNA-based therapeutics.     

ZEB1上调神经细胞黏附分子促进胶质瘤细胞侵袭与转移

胶质瘤是一种较为常见的颅内恶性肿瘤,其侵袭转移能力强,影响临床疗效。探讨胶质瘤发生侵袭转移的分子机制,寻找新的靶点干预胶质瘤侵袭转移是目前亟待解决的重大课题。我们前期研究中发现,神经细胞黏附分子（neuronal cell adhesion molecule, NRCAM）在各种胶质瘤细胞中的表达量均显著高于其在人正常星形胶质细胞(NHA)中的表达量（NRCAM在胶质瘤A172和T98G中的表达量分别是其在NHA中的2.15和17.63倍）;且根据人类蛋白质组学数据库信息及qRT-PCR结果证实,NRCAM在胶质瘤组织中的表达量也显著高于其在正常组织中的表达。Kaplan-Meier分析提示,高表达的NRCAM与胶质瘤患者较差的预后正相关。在此基础上,通过生物信息学预测的方法结合双荧光素酶报告基因实验证实,转录因子锌指E盒结合蛋白1(ZEB1)能够增加NRCAM启动子活性,上调NRCAM mRNA和蛋白质水平的表达量。通过Transwell实验证实,在过表达ZEB1的胶质瘤细胞A172中,沉默NRCAM将抑制该细胞的侵袭能力。而在敲低ZEB1的胶质瘤细胞T98G中,过表达NRCAM将增加该细胞的侵袭能力。总之,NRCAM在胶质瘤中显著高表达且与患者较差的预后正相关。ZEB1转录上调NRCAM来增加胶质瘤细胞侵袭能力。     

Glioma models

Gliomas are primary central nervous system tumors that arise from astrocytes, oligodendrocytes or their precursors. Gliomas can be classified into several groups according to their histologic characteristics, the most malignant of the gliomas is glioblastoma multiforme. In contrast to the long-standing and well-defined histopathology, the underlying molecular and genetic bases for gliomas are only just emerging. Many genetic alterations have been identified in human gliomas, however, establishing unequivocal correlation between these genetic alterations and gliomagenesis requires accurate animal models for this disease. Here we are reviewing the existing animal models for gliomas with different strategies and our current knowledge on the important issues about this disease, such as activation of signal transduction pathways, disruption of cell cycle arrest pathways, cell-of-origin of gliomas, and therapeutic strategies.     

Expression of TIP-1 Confers Radioresistance of Malignant Glioma Cells

Background

Malignant gliomas represent one group of tumors that poorly respond to ionizing radiation (IR) alone or combined with chemotherapeutic agents because of the intrinsic or acquired resistance. In this study, TIP-1 was identified as one novel protein that confers resistance of glioma cells to IR.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Meta-analysis indicated that high TIP-1 expression levels correlate with the poor prognosis of human malignant gliomas after radiotherapy. Studies with established human glioma cell lines demonstrated that TIP-1 depletion with specific shRNAs sensitized the cells to IR, whereas an ectopic expression of TIP-1 protected the glioma cells from the IR-induced DNA damage and cell death. Biochemical studies indicated that TIP-1 protein promoted p53 ubiquitination and resulted in a reduced p53 protein level. Furthermore, p53 and its ubiquitination are required for the TIP-1 regulated cellular response to IR. A yeast two-hybrid screening identified that TIP-1, through its single PDZ domain, binds to the carboxyl terminus of LZAP that has been studied as one tumor suppressor functioning through ARF binding and p53 activation. It was revealed that the presence of TIP-1 enhances the protein association between LZAP and ARF and modulates the functionality of ARF/HDM2 toward multi-ubiquitination of p53, while depleting TIP-1 rescued p53 from polyubiquitination and degradation in the irradiated glioma cells. Studies with a mouse xenograft model indicated that depleting TIP-1 within D54 cells improved the tumor growth control with IR.

Conclusions/Significance

This study provided the first evidence showing that TIP-1 modulates p53 protein stability and is involved in the radioresistance of malignant gliomas, suggesting that antagonizing TIP-1 might be one novel approach to sensitize malignant gliomas to radiotherapy.     

Piwil1 Regulates Glioma Stem Cell Maintenance and Glioblastoma Progression

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Shikonin Kills Glioma Cells through Necroptosis Mediated by RIP-1

Background and Purpose

Shikonin was reported to induce necroptosis in leukemia cells, but apoptosis in glioma cell lines. Thus, it is needed to clarify whether shikonin could cause necroptosis in glioma cells and investigate its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Shikonin and rat C6 glioma cell line and Human U87 glioma cell line were used in this study. The cellular viability was assayed by MTT. Flow cytometry with annexin V-FITC and PI double staining was used to analyze cellular death modes. Morphological alterations in C6 glioma cells treated with shikoinin were evaluated by electronic transmission microscopy and fluorescence microscopy with Hoechst 33342 and PI double staining. The level of reactive oxygen species was assessed by using redox-sensitive dye DCFH-DA. The expressional level of necroptosis associated protein RIP-1 was analyzed by western blotting.

Results

Shikonin induced cell death in C6 and U87 glioma cells in a dose and time dependent manner. The cell death in C6 and U87 glioma cells could be inhibited by necroptosis inhibitor necrotatin-1, not by pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-fmk. Shikonin treated C6 glioma cells presented electron-lucent cytoplasm, loss of plasma membrane integrity and intact nuclear membrane in morphology. The increased ROS level caused by shikonin was attenuated by necrostatin-1 and blocking ROS by anti-oxidant NAC rescued shikonin-induced cell death in both C6 and U87 glioma cells. Moreover, the expressional level of RIP-1 was up-regulated by shikonin in a dose and time dependent manner as well, but NAC suppressed RIP-1 expression.

Conclusions

We demonstrated that the cell death caused by shikonin in C6 and U87 glioma cells was mainly via necroptosis. Moreover, not only RIP-1 pathway, but also oxidative stress participated in the activation of shikonin induced necroptosis.     

Inhibition of Glioma Cell Lysosome Exocytosis Inhibits Glioma Invasion

Cancer cells invade by secreting enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix and these are sequestered in lysosomal vesicles. In this study, the effects of the selective lysosome lysing drug GPN and the lysosome exocytosis inhibitor vacuolin-1 on lysosome exocytosis were studied to determine their effect on glioma cell migration and invasion. Both GPN and vacuolin-1 evidently inhibited migration and invasion in transwell experiments and scratch experiments. There are more lysosomes located on the cell membrane of glioma cells than of astrocytes. GPN decreased the lysosome number on the cell membrane. We found that rab27A was expressed in glioma cells, and colocalized with cathepsin D in lysosome. RNAi-Rab27A inhibited lysosome cathepsin D exocytosis and glioma cell invasion in an in vitro assay. Inhibition of cathepsin D inhibited glioma cell migration. The data suggest that the inhibition of lysosome exocytosis from glioma cells plays an important modulatory role in their migration and invasion.     

海星皂甙1对人胶质瘤U87细胞抗增殖作用的研究

目的:海星皂甙是一类从海星中分离、萃取出来的甾体苷类,被认为是海星体内毒素的主要成分.研究表明海星皂甙及其化学衍生物具有多种药理学活性,包括抗菌、抗病毒、抗肿瘤、抑制真菌活性等.本实验旨在研究海星皂甙1对人胶质瘤U87细胞的抗增殖作用和可能的机制.方法:不同浓度海星皂甙l处理人胶质瘤U87细胞后,采用MTT法检测细胞活力,TUNEL染色观察细胞凋亡情况,Westernblot检测内质网应激相关凋亡分子的活性.结果:①海星皂甙1显著抑制U87细胞的增殖,呈时间与剂量依赖性.②海星皂甙1诱导U87细胞发生凋亡.③海星皂甙1处理后U87细胞内质网相关凋亡分子活性明显增高.结论:海星皂甙1通过诱导细胞凋亡抑制人胶质瘤U87细胞的增殖,这种抗增殖作用可能是通过激活内质网应激相关凋亡分子实现的.     

多种胶质瘤细胞系中获取胶质瘤干细胞方法的研究

目的:进一步证明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并寻找一种简洁的方法从不同胶质瘤细胞系中提取肿瘤干细胞。方法:将胶质瘤细胞以合适的密度接种于96孔板中,获取胶质瘤干细胞,并通过检测其自我更新能力、多向分化能力、成瘤能力及胶质瘤干细胞标记物的表达情况对其进行鉴定。结果:多种细胞系中均成功获取了胶质瘤干细胞。并且这细胞球表达神经干细胞的标志物,不表达神经细胞分化标志物,同时又有多向分化的能力,仅5000个细胞就可以在裸鼠颅内成瘤。结论:我们的研究结果表明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并为以后进一步研究胶质瘤干细胞的特性及靶向胶质瘤干细胞的药物做铺垫。     

Prominin 1/CD133 Endothelium Sustains Growth of Proneural Glioma

In glioblastoma high expression of the CD133 gene, also called Prominin1, is associated with poor prognosis. The PDGF-driven proneural group represents a subset of glioblastoma in which CD133 is not overexpressed. Interestingly, this particular subset shows a relatively good prognosis. As with many other tumors, gliobastoma is believed to arise and be maintained by a restricted population of stem-like cancer cells that express the CD133 transmembrane protein. The significance of CD133⁺ cells for gliomagenesis is controversial because of conflicting supporting evidence. Contributing to this inconsistency is the fact that the isolation of CD133⁺ cells has largely relied on the use of antibodies against ill-defined glycosylated epitopes of CD133. To overcome this problem, we used a knock-in lacZ reporter mouse, Prom1^lacZ/+, to track Prom1⁺ cells in the brain. We found that Prom1 (prominin1, murine CD133 homologue) is expressed by cells that express markers characteristic of the neuronal, glial or vascular lineages. In proneural tumors derived from injection of RCAS-PDGF into the brains of tv-a;Ink4a-Arf^−/− Prom1^lacZ/+ mice, Prom1⁺ cells expressed markers for astrocytes or endothelial cells. Mice co-transplanted with proneural tumor sphere cells and Prom1⁺ endothelium had a significantly increased tumor burden and more vascular proliferation (angiogenesis) than those co-transplanted with Prom1⁻ endothelium. We also identified specific genes in Prom1⁺ endothelium that code for endothelial signaling modulators that were not overexpressed in Prom1⁻ endothelium. These factors may support proneural tumor progression and could be potential targets for anti-angiogenic therapy.     

多种胶质瘤细胞系中获取胶质瘤干细胞方法的研究

目的：进一步证明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并寻找一种简洁的方法从不同胶质瘤细胞系中提取肿瘤干细胞。方法：将胶质瘤细胞以合适的密度接种于96孔板中,获取胶质瘤干细胞,并通过检测其自我更新能力、多向分化能力、成瘤能力及胶质瘤干细胞标记物的表达情况对其进行鉴定。结果：多种细胞系中均成功获取了胶质瘤干细胞。并且这细胞球表达神经干细胞的标志物,不袁达神经细胞分化标志物,同时又有多向分化的能力,仅5000个细胞就可以在裸鼠颅内成瘤。结论：我们的研究结果表明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并为以后进一步研究胶质瘤干细胞的特性及靶向胶质瘤干细胞的药物做铺垫。