4-Hydroxynonenal, a Lipid Peroxidation Product, Rapidly Accumulates Following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury and Inhibits Glutamate Uptake

Abstract: Traumatic injury to the spinal cord initiates a host of pathophysiological events that are secondary to the initial insult. One such event is the accumulation of free radicals that damage lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. A major reactive product formed following lipid peroxidation is the aldehyde, 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE), which cross-links to side chain amino acids and inhibits the function of several key metabolic enzymes. In the present study, we used immunocytochemical and immunoblotting techniques to examine the accumulation of protein-bound HNE, and synaptosomal preparations to study the effects of spinal cord injury and HNE formation on glutamate uptake. Protein-bound HNE increased in content in the damaged spinal cord at early times following injury (1–24 h) and was found to accumulate in myelinated fibers distant to the site of injury. Immunoblots revealed that protein-bound HNE levels increased dramatically over the same postinjury interval. Glutamate uptake in synaptosomal preparations from injured spinal cords was decreased by 65% at 24 h following injury. Treatment of control spinal cord synaptosomes with HNE was found to decrease significantly, in a dose-dependent fashion, glutamate uptake, an effect that was mimicked by inducers of lipid peroxidation. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the lipid peroxidation product HNE rapidly accumulates in the spinal cord following injury and that a major consequence of HNE accumulation is a decrease in glutamate uptake, which may potentiate neuronal cell dysfunction and death through excitotoxic mechanisms.     

Ethanol-Induced Oxygen Radical Formation and Lipid Peroxidation in Rat Brain: Effect of Chronic Alcohol Consumption

Abstract: The effect of chronic and in vitro ethanol exposure on brain oxygen radical formation and lipid peroxidation was analyzed. Ethanol induces a dose-dependent increase in lipid peroxidation in brain homogenates. The peroxidative effects of alcohol seem to be related to both cytochrome P450 and the ethanol-inducible form of cytochrome P450 (CYP2E1), because preincubation with metyrapone (an inhibitor of cytochrome P450) or with an antibody against CYP2E1 abolished the ethanol-increased lipid peroxidation. Using the formation of dichlorofluorescein, we also demonstrated that both in vitro and chronic alcohol exposure significantly enhanced the formation of oxygen radical species in synaptosomes. Chronic alcohol treatment also leads to an induction of cytochrome P450 (230%), NADPH cytochrome c reductase (180%), NADPH oxidation (184%), and CYP2E1 in brain microsomes. In addition, this treatment produced a decrease in the GSH/GSSG ratio in brain and significantly enhanced the levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. This mechanism could be involved in the toxic effects of ethanol on brain and membrane alterations occurring after chronic ethanol intake.     

Regional Distribution of Human Trypsinogen 4 in Human Brain at mRNA and Protein Level

Gene PRSS3 on chromosome 9 of the human genome encodes, due to alternative splicing, both mesotrypsinogen and trypsinogen 4. Mesotrypsinogen has long been known as a minor component of trypsinogens expressed in human pancreas, while the mRNA for trypsinogen 4 has recently been identified in brain and other human tissues. We measured the amount of trypsinogen 4 mRNA and the quantity of the protein as well in 17 selected areas of the human brain. Our data suggest that human trypsinogen 4 is widely but unevenly distributed in the human brain. By immunohistochemistry, here we show that this protease is localized in neurons and glial cells, predominantly in astrocytes. In addition to cellular immunoreactivity, human trypsinogen 4 immunopositive dots were detected in the extracellular matrix, supporting the view that human trypsinogen 4 might be released from the cells under special conditions. Júlia Tóth and Erika Siklódi contributed equally to this work.     

Protective effect of vitamin E on spinal cord injury by compression and concurrent lipid peroxidation

Studies were made on the influence of vitamin E on the effects of compression injury of the spinal cord associated with ischemia in rats. The motor disturbance induced by spinal cord injury was greatly reduced by vitamin E supplementation. After injury, the spinal cord evoked potentials showed greater recovery of both amplitude and latency in the vitamin E-supplemented group than in the control group. Spinal cord blood flow was promptly restored and remained normal after injury in the vitamin E-supplemented group, but was significantly decreased from 3 h after injury in the control group. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA)—reactive substances in the spinal cord was immediately increased by compression injury in both groups, and after injury it persisted at a high value for 24 h in the control group, but decreased within 1 h in the vitamin E-supplemented group. Pathological examination of the spinal cord showed less damage, such as bleeding and edema, in the vitamin E-supplemented group than in the control group. Vitamin E may have protective effects on the spinal cord by inhibiting damage induced by lipid peroxidation and/or by sustaining the blood flow by maintaining the normal metabolism of arachidonic acid.     

Effect of Dichloroacetate on Regional Energy Metabolites and Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Activity During Ischemia and Reperfusion in Gerbil Brain

The objective of this study was to determine whether administration of dichloroacetate (DCA), an activator of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), improves recovery of energy metabolites following transient cerebral ischemia. Gerbils were pretreated with DCA, and cerebral ischemia was produced using bilateral carotid artery occlusion for 20 min, followed by reperfusion up to 4 h. DCA had no effect on the accumulation of lactic acid and the decrease in ATP and phosphocreatine (PCr) during the 20-min insult, nor on the recovery of these metabolites measured at 20 and 60 min reperfusion. However, at 4 h reperfusion, levels of ATP and PCr were significantly higher in DCA-treated animals than in controls, as PCr exhibited a secondary decrease in caudate nucleus of control animals. PDH was markedly inhibited at 20 min reperfusion in both groups, but was reactivated to a greater extent in DCA-treated animals at 60 min and 4 h reperfusion. These results demonstrate that DCA had no effect on the initial recovery of metabolites following transient ischemia. However, later in reperfusion, DCA enhanced the postischemic reactivation of PDH and prevented the secondary failure of energy metabolism in caudate nucleus. Thus, inhibition of PDH may limit the recovery of energy metabolism following cerebral ischemia.     

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Is Important for Nitrosative Stress Resistance in Cryptococcus neoformans,but Oxidative Stress Resistance Is Not Dependent on Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase

The opportunistic intracellular fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans depends on many antioxidant and denitrosylating proteins and pathways for virulence in the immunocompromised host. These include the glutathione and thioredoxin pathways, thiol peroxidase, cytochrome c peroxidase, and flavohemoglobin denitrosylase. All of these ultimately depend on NADPH for either catalytic activity or maintenance of a reduced, functional form. The need for NADPH during oxidative stress is well established in many systems, but a role in resistance to nitrosative stress has not been as well characterized. In this study we investigated the roles of two sources of NADPH, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Zwf1) and NADP⁺-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idp1), in production of NADPH and resistance to oxidative and nitrosative stress. Deletion of ZWF1 in C. neoformans did not result in an oxidative stress sensitivity phenotype or changes in the amount of NADPH produced during oxidative stress compared to those for the wild type. Deletion of IDP1 resulted in greater sensitivity to nitrosative stress than to oxidative stress. The amount of NADPH increased 2-fold over that in the wild type during nitrosative stress, and yet the idp1Δ strain accumulated more mitochondrial damage than the wild type during nitrosative stress. This is the first report of the importance of Idp1 and NADPH for nitrosative stress resistance.The alveolar macrophage can produce microbicidal amounts of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) following phagocytosis (27, 53). Despite this, the opportunistic fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans is able to inhabit and replicate within phagocytes of the mammalian host and to exit these cells unharmed (1, 2, 40). The intracellular pathogenicity of C. neoformans is most likely facilitated by stress resistance mechanisms, including a number of antioxidant proteins and pathways involved in the detoxification of ROS and RNS. Specifically, these include the synthesis of mannitol, a free radical scavenger (9, 20); the small protein flavohemoglobin denitrosylase (Fhb1), which is essential for resistance of C. neoformans to nitrosative stress (10, 14, 32); and the glutathione and thioredoxin antioxidant systems, which are both important for stress resistance and virulence (42, 43, 45).Even with different mechanisms of catalysis and/or cellular localization, one thing that these stress resistance proteins and pathways have in common is the requirement for NADPH as a cofactor. NADPH is used as an electron donor either in recycling of oxidized, inactive enzymes to reduced, active forms or directly in catalytic activity. For example, Fhb1 binds NADPH during its catalytic activity and uses it directly as an electron donor for the reduction of NO· to NO₃ (21). Catalases, which are highly conserved antioxidants that dismute H₂O₂ to molecular oxygen and water, consist of four units each with a molecule of NADPH bound in the core (18, 36, 59). The tripeptide glutathione (GSH) is oxidized to glutathione disulfide (GSSG), a homodimer held together by a disulfide bridge, during its oxidative state. GSSG can be reduced back to GSH by glutathione reductase, an enzyme that requires NADPH for electrons used in reduction. Similarly, glutathione peroxidase and thiol peroxidase ultimately depend on NADPH for recycling from an oxidized, inactive form back to a reduced, active form (57).NADPH is classically recognized as being produced by the highly conserved, cytosolic pentose phosphate pathway. This pathway has been shown to be important for reductive biochemistry during oxidative stress in many organisms. The pentose phosphate pathway is an essential factor in maintaining health of erythrocytes, cells that, due to their biological function, have considerable risk for oxidative damage. Humans deficient in the pathway have hemolytic anemia, as their erythrocytes are unable to maintain sufficient pools of reduced glutathione (68). Also, the pressure of oxidative stress can stimulate the pentose phosphate pathway. This has been shown in human lymphocytes (56); in the rat adrenal gland, liver, and pancreas (15, 16); and in bacteria (63).In fungi, the pentose phosphate pathway has been implicated in both oxidative stress resistance and adaptation to oxidative stress. In the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, NADPH-generating systems, including the pentose phosphate pathway, are critical for the ability of this organism to resist and adapt to high levels of oxidative stress (35, 47). It has also been shown that the cytosolic copper/zinc superoxide dismutase and the pentose phosphate pathway have overlapping roles in protecting S. cerevisiae from oxidative stress and that both systems are critical for maintaining the intracellular redox state (62). Furthermore, fungi may rely on the pentose phosphate pathway for more than reducing oxidative stress. Aspergillus nidulans requires a functional pentose phosphate pathway for nitrogen metabolism. Four A. nidulans mutants with independent defects in the pentose phosphate pathway were unable to grow on nitrite, nitrate, or various carbon sources, including 1% glucose, d-xylose, or d-glucoronate (28).The pathway has two phases, the oxidative phase and the nonoxidative phase. The oxidative phase consists of two successive oxidations and results in the production of NADPH. The first enzyme in the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway is glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Zwf). Zwf catalyzes the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconate and is highly specific for NADP⁺ as a cofactor (49, 67). There is abundant evidence supporting the role of Zwf in oxidative stress resistance. In addition to Zwf deficiency causing hemolytic anemia, Zwf has been also been implicated in maintenance of DNA repair systems during oxidative stress, as some cancers and aging disorders have also been linked to Zwf deficiency (30). For instance, Chinese hamster ovarian cells that are Zwf null have enhanced radiation sensitivity and a reduced ability to repair double-strand breaks due to the inactivation of Ku, a heterodimer DNA repair protein. In this case, the inactivation of Ku is the result of overoxidation of key cysteine residues on the protein due to the lack of sufficient reduced GSH (3). In the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, deletion of ZWF1 results in sensitivity to oxidative stress. ZWF1 is also important for the adaptive response to oxidative stress in S. cerevisiae. ZWF1-null mutants and wild-type cells were pretreated with 0.2 mM H₂O₂ and then challenged with 2 mM H₂O₂. While a large increase in tolerance to the high level of H₂O₂ was observed in the wild-type cells pretreated with 0.2 mM H₂O₂, the zwf1Δ strain was unable to tolerate the higher concentration (33). In Candida albicans, another pathogenic fungus, ZWF1 is upregulated during oxidative stress (38).Another source of NADPH is NADP⁺-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idp) (55), a ubiquitous enzyme that in systems ranging from humans to yeasts to plants has been found in the cytosol, peroxisomes, or mitochondria (12, 19, 70). Although this enzyme can be targeted to mitochondria, it is distinct from the NAD⁺-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idh) that functions in the mitochondria as part of the Krebs cycle. However, similarly to Idh, Idp catalyzes the decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate (29). This reaction can be performed in the mitochondria, in the cytosol, or in peroxisomes using isocitrate formed from citrate exported across the mitochondrial membrane. This allows for the production of NADPH in cellular compartments without reliance of active transport of NADPH across membranes (11). It is important to have reductive power produced directly within organelles for protection from exogenous as well as endogenous stressor. For example, NADPH is consumed in peroxisomes by enzymes such as catalase and uric acid oxidase, that counteract the ROS produced during breakdown of lipids (4, 5, 31). Mitochondria particularly require reductive capability, as these organelles are susceptible to endogenous ROS produced during cellular respiration and also to exogenous RNS (52). The proteins that make up the electron transport chain are prone to damage by nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and S-nitrosothiols (6). Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite have been shown to cause irreversible damage to cytochrome c reductase, NADH dehydrogenase, and the succinate-ubiquinone complex; the common mechanism of damage is sequestration of iron/sulfur centers of the proteins (54, 69). Thus, without a means of detoxification, the mitochondrial membrane loses potential and the ability to continue respiration, leading to death of the stressed cell. In C. neoformans, some antioxidant enzymes that are located at the mitochondria and dependent on NADPH for function include catalases, superoxide dismutases, cytochrome c peroxidase, and flavohemoglobin denitrosylase (7, 24, 25, 26). These enzymes are important for stress resistance or virulence of C. neoformans due to their role in high-temperature growth (24, 25) or nitrosative stress resistance (10, 14, 26).In humans, there is one IDP gene that results in mitochondrial and peroxisomal products (22). In S. cerevisiae, there are three IDP genes, which encode mitochondrial (IDP1), cytosolic (IDP2), and peroxisomal (IDP3) forms of the protein. Deletion of both ZWF1 and any one of the IDP genes in S. cerevisiae results in sensitivity to oxidative stress, likely due to a substantial decrease in NADPH produced in these double deletion mutants (41). In C. neoformans there is one predicted IDP gene (IDP1). Microarray data have indicated that this gene is upregulated 2.5-fold during nitrosative stress and thus may have a role in resistance to this stressor (44).Since so many factors essential for stress resistance in C. neoformans utilize NADPH, we hypothesize that the sources of this cofactor are likewise critical for stress resistance. Although Zwf1 is important for adaptation to oxidative stress in the fungi S. cerevisiae and C. albicans, we had previously found that C. neoformans is unable to adapt to oxidative stress (S. M. Brown and J. K. Lodge, unpublished data), and thus we had reason to suspect that the role of Zwf1 in C. neoformans may be different than that in other organisms. The role of Idp1 in stress resistance, especially in resistance to nitrosative stress, is relatively unknown. In this study we used biochemical and genetic approaches to compare the roles of Zwf1 and Idp1 in resistance to oxidative and nitrosative stress in C. neoformans. We found that the Zwf1 is dispensable for viability, for resistance to oxidative and nitrosative stress, and for NADPH production. In contrast, we found that Idp1 is important for resistance to nitrosative stress, specifically for maintaining healthy mitochondria during exposure to nitrosative stress.     

Effect of MPTP and l-Deprenyl on Antioxidant Enzymes and Lipid Peroxidation Levels in Mouse Brain

Abstract: Excessive free radical formation or antioxidant enzyme deficiency can result in oxidative stress, a mechanism proposed in the toxicity of MPTP and in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, it is unclear if altered antioxidant enzyme activity is sufficient to increase lipid peroxidation in PD. We therefore investigated if MPTP can alter the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and the level of lipid peroxidation. l -Deprenyl, prior to MPTP administration, is used to inhibit MPP⁺ formation and its subsequent effect on antioxidant enzymes. MPTP induced a threefold increase in SOD activity in the striatum of C57BL/6 mice. No parallel increase in GSH-PX or CAT activities was observed, while striatal lipid peroxidation decreased. At the level of the substantia nigra (SN), even though increases in CAT activity and reduction in SOD and GSH-PX activities were detected, lipid peroxidation was not altered. Interestingly, l -deprenyl induced similar changes in antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation levels, as did MPTP. Taken together, these results suggest that an alteration in SOD activity, without compensatory increases in CAT or GSH-PX activities, is not sufficient to induce lipid peroxidation.     

Preparation and Properties of Asymmetric Large Unilamellar Vesicles: Interleaflet Coupling in Asymmetric Vesicles Is Dependent on Temperature but Not Curvature

Asymmetry of inner and outer leaflet lipid composition is an important characteristic of eukaryotic plasma membranes. We previously described a technique in which methyl-β-cyclodextrin-induced lipid exchange is used to prepare biological membrane-like asymmetric small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs). Here, to mimic plasma membranes more closely, we used a lipid-exchange-based method to prepare asymmetric large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs), which have less membrane curvature than SUVs. Asymmetric LUVs in which sphingomyelin (SM) or SM + 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine was exchanged into the outer leaflet of vesicles composed of 1,2-dioleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-phosphatidylserine (POPS) were prepared with or without cholesterol. Approximately 80–100% replacement of outer leaflet DOPE and POPS was achieved. At room temperature, SM exchange into the outer leaflet increased the inner leaflet lipid order, suggesting significant interleaflet interaction. However, the SM-rich outer leaflet formed an ordered state, melting with a midpoint at ∼37°C. This was about the same value observed in pure SM vesicles, and was significantly higher than that observed in symmetric vesicles with the same SM content, which melted at ∼20°C. In other words, ordered state formation by outer-leaflet SM in asymmetric vesicles was not destabilized by an inner leaflet composed of DOPE and POPS. These properties suggest that the coupling between the physical states of the outer and inner leaflets in these asymmetric LUVs becomes very weak as the temperature approaches 37°C. Overall, the properties of asymmetric LUVs were very similar to those previously observed in asymmetric SUVs, indicating that they do not arise from the high membrane curvature of asymmetric SUVs.     

Effects of Vitamin A and Its Analogs on Nonenzymatic Lipid Peroxidation in Rat Brain Mitochondria

Vitamin A (retinol) and some of its analogs exhibited varying degrees of inhibition on induced iron and ascorbic acid lipid peroxidation of rat brain mitochondria. Malonyldialdehyde production was used as an index of the extent of in vitro lipid peroxidation. The fat-soluble vitamins retinol, retinol acetate, retinoic acid, retinol palmitate, and retinal at concentrations between 0.1 and 10.0 mmol/L inhibited brain lipid peroxidation. Retinol and retinol acetate were the most effective inhibitors. It is concluded from this study that retinol and its analogs can be considered as potential antioxidant factors, more potent than some of the well-known antioxidants such as alpha-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.     

Nerve Growth Factor Administration Attenuates Cognitive but Not Neurobehavioral Motor Dysfunction or Hippocampal Cell Loss Following Fluid-Percussion Brain Injury in Rats

Abstract: Lateral fluid-percussion brain injury in rats results in cognitive deficits, motor dysfunction, and selective hippocampal cell loss. Neurotrophic factors have been shown to have potential therapeutic applications in neurodegenerative diseases, and nerve growth factor (NGF) has been shown to be neuroprotective in models of excitotoxicity. This study evaluated the neuroprotective efficacy of intracerebral NGF infusion after traumatic brain injury. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received lateral fluid-percussion brain injury of moderate severity (2.1–2.3 atm). A miniosmotic pump was implanted 24 h after injury to infuse NGF (n = 34) or vehicle (n = 16) directly into the region of maximal cortical injury. Infusions of NGF continued until the animal was killed at 72 h, 1 week, or 2 weeks after injury. Animals were evaluated for cognitive dysfunction (Morris Water Maze) and regional neuronal cell loss (Nissl staining) at each of the three time points. Animals surviving for 1 or 2 weeks were also evaluated for neurobehavioral motor function. Although an improvement in memory scores was not observed at 72 h after injury, animals receiving NGF infusions showed significantly improved memory scores when tested at 1 or 2 weeks after injury compared with injured animals receiving vehicle infusions ( p < 0.05). Motor scores and CA3 hippocampal cell loss were not significantly different in any group of NGF-treated animals when compared with controls. These data suggest that NGF administration, in the acute, posttraumatic period following fluid-percussion brain injury, may have potential in improving post-traumatic cognitive deficits.     

异丙酚和氯胺酮对大鼠离体缺血再灌注损伤心肌脂质过氧化的影响

目的：比较异丙酚和氯胺酮对大鼠离体缺血再灌注损伤心肌脂质过氧化的影响。方法：成年Wistar大鼠18只,雌雄不拘。体重240-300g,随机分为3组（T1=6）：心肌缺血再灌注损伤组（I／R组）,异丙酚组（P组）,氯胺酮组（K组）。采用Langendorff灌装置建立离体心脏缺血再灌注模型,将心脏连接至Langendorff逆灌装置,3组均以K-H液平衡灌注10min后,再分别以K．H液、含30μmol/L。异丙酚的K-H液、含10μmol-L-1氯胺酮的K-H液灌注10min,然后全心停灌25min,再分别以停灌前相同的灌注液恢复灌注30min。留取冠脉流出液测定总LDH活性;灌注末取左室心肌组织置于2．5％的戊二醛固定,观察心肌的超微结构;心尖部心肌组织留待检测8-异前列腺素和SOD活性。结果：与I／R组比较,P组8-异前列腺素含量降低,SOD活性升高,LDH活性降低（P〈0．05）;K组8-异前列腺素含量,SOD及LDH活性均无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;与P组比较,K组8-异前列腺素含量升高,SOD及LDH活性降低（P〈0．05）;P组心肌超微结构损伤较m组和K组也明显改善。结论：异丙酚可显著减轻心肌缺血再灌注损伤大鼠的脂质过氧化和心肌缺血再灌注损伤,而氯胺酮没有抗心肌缺血再灌注损伤心肌脂质过氧化的作用。     

Reproducable Paraplegia by Thoracic Aortic Occlusion in a Murine Model of Spinal Cord Ischemia-reperfusion

Background Lower extremity paralysis continues to complicate aortic interventions. The lack of understanding of the underlying pathology has hindered advancements to decrease the occurrence this injury. The current model demonstrates reproducible lower extremity paralysis following thoracic aortic occlusion.Methods Adult male C57BL6 mice were anesthetized with isoflurane. Through a cervicosternal incision the aorta was exposed. The descending thoracic aorta and left subclavian arteries were identified without entrance into pleural space. Skeletonization of these arteries was followed by immediate closure (Sham) or occlusion for 4 min (moderate ischemia) or 8 min (prolonged ischemia). The sternotomy and skin were closed and the mouse was transferred to warming bed for recovery.  Following recovery, functional analysis was obtained at 12 hr intervals until 48 hr.Results Mice that underwent sham surgery showed no observable hind limb deficit. Mice subjected to moderate ischemia for 4 min had minimal functional deficit at 12 hr followed by progression to complete paralysis at 48 hr. Mice subjected to prolonged ischemia had an immediate paralysis with no observable hind-limb movement at any point in the postoperative period. There was no observed intraoperative or post operative mortality.Conclusion Reproducible lower extremity paralysis whether immediate or delayed can be achieved in a murine model. Additionally, by using a median sternotomy and careful dissection, high survival rates, and reproducibility can be achieved.     

Effects of CDPcholine and CDPethanolamine on the Alterations in Rat Brain Lipid Metabolism Induced by Global Ischemia

Abstract: The fast turnover pool of rat brain lipids was labeled by intracerebral injection of [³H]acetate. Cerebral ischemia for a duration of 5 min after decapitation caused a 2.2-fold increase in radioactivity in the free fatty acids and loss of more than 20% of the radioactivity from choline and ethanolamine glycerophospholipids. An intracerebral injection of 0.6 μmol each of cytidine diphosphocholine (CDPcholine) and cytidine diphosphoethanolamine (CDPethanolamine) prevented the loss of radioactivity from the glycerophospholipids and decreased the amount of radioactivity in the free fatty acids by 59% as compared with control values and 82% as compared with ischemia values. By GLC assays of the mass of the free fatty acids, there was a threefold increase of free fatty acids in ischemic brains. Pretreatment of ischemic brains with CDPcholine and CDPethanolamine reduced the levels of unesterified fatty acids to 60% of the control values. Thus, a prior injection of cytidine nucleotides prevented the release of free fatty acids observed in ischemic brains.     

Processing of the Matricellular Protein Hevin in Mouse Brain Is Dependent on ADAMTS4

The matricellular SPARC family member hevin (SPARC-like 1/SPARCL-1/SC1/Mast9) contributes to neural development and alters tumor progression in a range of mammalian models. The distribution of hevin in mouse tissues was reexamined with a novel monoclonal antibody that discriminates between hevin and its ortholog SPARC. We now report proteolysis of hevin in many tissues, with the most extensive processing in the brain. We demonstrate a cleavage site within the hevin sequence for the neural tissue proteinase ADAMTS4. Digestion of hevin by ADAMTS4 in vitro produced fragments similar to those present in brain lysates. Monoclonal antibodies revealed a SPARC-like fragment generated from hevin that was co-localized with ADAMTS4 in vivo. We show that proteolysis of hevin by ADAMTS4 in the mouse cerebellum is important for the normal development of this tissue. In conclusion, we have identified the fragmentation of hevin by ADAMTS4 in the mouse brain and propose that this specific proteolysis is integral to cell morphology and extracellular matrix deposition in the developing brain.     

G—CSF对大鼠脊髓损伤后神经细胞凋亡及caspase-3表达的影响

目的：通过观察粒细胞集落刺激因子（G—CSF）对大鼠急性脊髓损伤后神经细胞凋亡及Caspase-3的表达的影响,探讨其对脊髓保护的作用机制。方法：32只Vistar大鼠随机分成2组：对照组和治疗组,每组16只,采用改良的Allen’s装置制成大鼠急性脊髓损伤模型。在术前及术后对大鼠进行BBB功能评分观察大鼠的神经功能变化;用免疫荧光法检测脊髓损伤后个时间点Caspase-3表达;原位脱氧核糖核苷酸末端转移酶介导的缺口末端标记法（Tunel法）检测凋亡细胞。结果：大鼠急性脊髓损后Caspase-3表达与细胞凋亡均呈现先升高后下降的趋势,损伤后3d可见大量的Caspase-3和TUNEL阳性细胞,7d时达到高峰,此后表达逐渐减少,21d时仍可见少量阳性细胞。与对照组比较,G—CSF治疗组各时间点Caspase-3表达和细胞凋亡显著降低,功能恢复显著优于对照组,差异具有统计学意义。结论：G-CSF可以减轻大鼠脊髓损伤后的神经元凋亡,从而发挥神经保护作用,其作用可能是通过抑制Caspase-3的表达使脊髓损伤周围神经细胞凋亡显著下降而实现的。     

Raised Thyrotrophin-Releasing Hormone, Pyroglutamylamino Peptidase, and Proline Endopeptidase Are Present in the Spinal Cord of Wobbler Mice but Not in Human Motor Neurone Disease

The Wobbler mouse (wr) is a mutant that exhibits loss of anterior horn cells in the spinal cord and brainstem and subsequent muscle wasting, particularly of the forelimbs and neck. The wr mice, 2-3 months of age, were found to have increased levels of immunoreactive-thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (ir-TRH) in the spinal cord and pons and medulla, but not in other CNS areas. This increase was observed in dorsal and ventral cord and at cervical, thoracic, and lumbar levels and was confirmed by HPLC to be authentic TRH. The levels of immunoreactive-somatostatin, -neurotensin, and -substance P were not raised in the CNS of wr mice. The activities of two peptidases capable of degrading TRH, pyroglutamylaminopeptidase (PGAP, EC 3.4.11.8) and proline endopeptidase (PEP, EC 3.4.21.26), and the level of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid were also raised in the spinal cord of 2-3-month-old wr mice although the activities of alanine aminopeptidase and lactate dehydrogenase and the level of 5-hydroxytryptamine were not. Increased spinal cord levels of ir-TRH and PGAP and PEP activities were not observed in the 1-month-old wr mice. In addition, a pilot study using spinal cord obtained at autopsy from three patients with motor neurone disease and 12 control subjects indicated no increase in spinal cord ir-TRH, PGAP, or PEP in human motor neurone disease.     

缺血预处理对兔脊髓缺血再灌注损伤水通道蛋白-4表达的影响

目的探讨缺血预处理（IPC）对兔脊髓缺血再灌注损伤后水通道蛋白-4（AQP-4）表达的影响。方法日本大耳白兔72只,随机分为3组：假手术组（S组）、脊髓缺血再灌注损伤组（I／R组）和缺血预处理组（IPC组）。I／R组和IPC组阻断腹主动脉30min造成脊髓缺血再灌注损伤,IPC组在损伤前短暂阻断腹主动脉5min二次实施预处理,S组暴露肾动脉下腹主动脉但不阻断。分别于再灌注损伤后4h和24h进行神经功能评分,并取L4—6脊髓缺血节段,计算脊髓组织含水量,免疫组化法测定脊髓组织中AQP-4表达水平。结果与S组比较,I／R组神经运动功能评分降低,脊髓组织含水量增加,AQP-4表达增加（P〈0．05）。与I／R组比较,IPC组神经运动功能评分增高,脊髓组织含水量降低,AQP-4表达减少（P〈0．05）。结论IPC可抑制脊髓损伤后AQP-4的表达,进而减轻脊髓水肿,保护缺血再灌注损伤的脊髓。     

Effect of Impact Trauma on Neurotransmitter and Nonneurotransmitter Amino Acids in Rat Spinal Cord

N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) administration exacerbates neurological dysfunction after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats, whereas NMDA antagonists improve outcome in this model. These observations suggest that release of excitatory amino acids contributes to secondary tissue damage after traumatic spinal cord injury. To further examine this hypothesis, concentrations of free amino acids were measured in spinal cord samples from anesthetized rats subjected to various degrees of impact trauma to the T9 spinal segment. Levels of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter amino acids [gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, aspartate, glycine, taurine] and levels of nonneurotransmitter amino acids (asparagine, glutamine, alanine, threonine, serine) were determined at 5 min, 4 h, and 24 h posttrauma. Uninjured surgical (laminectomy) control animals showed modest but significant declines in aspartate and glutamate levels, but not in other amino acids, at all time points. In injured animals, the excitatory amino acids glutamate and aspartate were significantly decreased by 5 min posttrauma, and remained depressed at 4 h and 24 h as compared with corresponding laminectomy controls. In contrast, the inhibitory amino acids, glycine, GABA, and taurine, were decreased at 5 min postinjury, had partially recovered at 4 h, and were almost fully recovered at 24 h. The nonneurotransmitter amino acids were unchanged at 5 min posttrauma and significantly increased at 4 h, with partial recovery at 24 h. At 4 h postinjury, severe trauma caused significantly greater decreases in aspartate and glutamate than did either mild or moderate injury. These findings are consistent with the postulated role of excitatory amino acids in CNS trauma.