The Importance of Mentorship and Interest Group Involvement for the Orthopedic Surgery Applicant

BackgroundMentorship in medical education is important for students’ professional development career planning. Orthopedic Surgery Interest Groups (OSIG) exist as formal organizations and serve as a conduit for undergraduate mentorship, though the role of mentorship via OSIGs within orthopedic medicine has not been thoroughly evaluated. Similarly, OSIGs within institutions are not standardized nor well defined. We sought to answer: (1) What offerings does OSIG provide for students interested in orthopaedic surgery? (2) How does OSIG involvement impact the orthopaedic surgery residency applicant? (3) Does OSIG involvement increase match rates for orthopaedic surgery residency applicants?MethodsAn online survey was distributed to faculty advisors at all allopathic US medical schools with available contact information. Results were analyzed using SPSS.ResultsOf the 28 respondent organizations, the majority (53.6%) have between 1-25 student members. On average, OSIGS offer 3.64 + 1.59 (mode = 4) executive positions. The most important initiative for OSIG groups was clinical/surgical shadowing, followed by faculty mentorship, and guidance for the residency application. OSIG involvement does impact the applicant, as all faculty mentors believed this to be an important component of the residency application. Leadership positions within OSIG was not perceived as being equally important. OSIG involvement did increase match rates; the match rate for all students at the schools surveyed (n=17) was 81.21% while the match rate for students within OSIG (n=17) was 82.39% (p<0.05). Of all students who applied to orthopedic surgery residency programs, 98.9% were members of OSIG, and of all students who successfully matched into orthopedic surgery residency programs in the 2019-2020 cycle, 100% (p<0.05) of students (n=17) were involved in OSIG.ConclusionThis study indicates the importance of involvement in OSIG as a conduit for clinical exposure and mentorship throughout medical education, and is especially relevant for applicants given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the residency application process. Data suggests that participation in an OSIG is a valuable experience for the medical student interested in orthopedics and that students involved in OSIGs are more likely to match into orthopedic residency programs. Level of Evidence: V     

老年骨科手术患者麻醉后认知功能障碍的多因素分析及模型预测初步研究

摘要 目的：探讨分析影响老年骨科手术患者麻醉后的认知功能障碍的因素并建立预测模型。方法：将2016年1月至2019年1月于我院骨科行手术的227例老年患者根据术后认知功能障碍评分分为认知障碍组及无障碍组,比较两组一般资料及手术方式、麻醉方式等手术相关因素,使用多因素Logistic回归模型分析影响术后认知功能障碍发生的因素,使用R软件建立出现认知功能障碍的列线图预测模型,并验证其效能。结果：术后共有65例患者出现认知功能障碍,认知障碍组患者的年龄、行全麻的患者比例、术中失血量、手术时间及出现术后并发症患者比例均明显高于无障碍组,而术中血压及应用超前镇痛患者比例均明显低于无障碍组（均P＜0.05）;而两组患者性别、BMI及手术部位等指标则无明显差异（均P＞0.05）;多因素Logistic回归分析示高龄、全麻、术中失血量过多、过长手术时间及术后出现并发症均是老年骨科手术患者术后出现认知障碍的独立危险因素（OR=1.077,3.796,3.826,1.712,6.937;均P＜0.05）;而术中高收缩压、舒张压及术前给予超前镇痛是术后出现认知功能障碍的保护因素（OR=0.953,0.913,0.333;均P＜0.05）;列线图预测认知功能障碍发生的一致性指数（C-index）为0.904（95%Cl 0.862~0.961）。结论：高龄、全麻、无超前镇痛、手术时间过长、术中失血量过多、术中低血压及术后出现并发症是出现术后认知功能障碍的危险因素,基于此构建的列线图可有效对术后认知功能障碍进行预测,具有较好的临床应用价值。     

成人脊柱畸形患者矫正术后力学性并发症发生率及其危险因素分析

摘要 目的：研究成人脊柱畸形患者矫正手术后力学性并发症的发生率以及影响其发生的危险因素。方法：纳入2016年6月到2020年6月在我院接受脊柱畸形矫正术的患者80例,术后对所有患者进行为期12个月的随访。根据患者术后随访期间是否出现力学性并发症分为力学并发症组和无力学并发症组,调查两组患者年龄、BMI、术中失血量、手术时间、合并神经损伤、术中截骨、性别、主弯角度、矫正率、手术史、入路以及疾病类型等病历资料,并通过单因素和多因素Logistic回归分析成人脊柱畸形矫正术后发生力学性并发症的独立危险因素。结果：80例脊柱畸形矫正术患者术后发生力学性并发症患者18例（22.50 %）,分别为内固定失败4例、近端交界性失败5例、远端交界性失败4例以及术后冠状面失平衡5例。单因素分析结果表明,手术时间（OR=6.924,P=0.015）、年龄（OR=2.803,P=0.011）、矫正率（OR=3.215,P=0.032）、合并神经损伤（OR=1.629,P=0.021）、术中截骨术（OR=5.876,P=0.005）以及手术史（OR=1.692,P=0.043）与成人脊柱畸形矫正术后力学性并发症的发生有关。多因素Logistic回归分析结果表明,手术时间（OR=2.265,P=0.002）、年龄（OR=4.035,P<0.001）、合并神经损伤（OR=3.024,P=0.003）以及术中截骨术（OR=3.982,P<0.001）是成人脊柱畸形矫正术后发生力学性并发症的独立危险因素。结论：成年脊柱畸形患者矫正术后易发生力学性并发症,手术时间较长、年龄较大、合并神经损伤以及术中截骨术均会增加其发生风险。     

Characteristics of medical students who choose primary care as a career: the McMaster experience.

We examined the relation between demographic characteristics and the career choices of medical students who entered McMaster University medical school between 1969 and 1975. In contrast to earlier work, this study found no significant differences in sex, age, marital status at the time of entry into medical school, undergraduate major, whether prerequisite premedical courses had been taken, undergraduate grade point average and academic performance between the graduates who chose primary care and those who chose a specialty. This suggests that many medical school graduates in the 1970s entered primary care by choice rather than by default.     

骨科术后下肢深静脉血栓形成与超声弹性成像参数的相关性

摘要 目的：探讨骨科术后下肢深静脉血栓形成与超声弹性成像参数的相关性。方法：选取2021年6月~2022年6月在我院骨科进行诊治的术后下肢深静脉血栓患者80例为观察组,再选择同期术后健康者60例为对照组。比较两组超声弹性评分、应变值;采用Pearson检验分析超声弹性评分、应变值与肢深静脉血栓形成之间的相关性;采用多因素Logistic回归分析影响下肢深静脉血栓形成的独立危险因素;采用受试者工作特征曲线（ROC）分析超声弹性评分、应变值预测下肢深静脉血栓形成的价值。结果：观察组超声弹性评分、应变值均高于对照组（P＜0.05）。Pearson相关性检验显示,超声弹性评分、应变值与下肢深静脉血栓形成均呈正相关（r=0.785、0.826,P<0.05）。多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示,超声弹性评分、应变值是影响下肢深静脉血栓形成的独立危险因素（OR=4.632、4.768,P<0.05）。ROC曲线分析结果显示,超声弹性评分、应变值在预测下肢深静脉血栓形成中具有极高的价值。结论：随着下肢深静脉血栓的形成,患者超声弹性评分、应变值升高,该两项指标在预测下肢深静脉血栓形成中具有极高的价值,临床上可借助该两项指标的参数值对骨科术后下肢深静脉血栓形成进行预判。     

Chronotype: implications for sleep quality in medical students

ABSTRACT

Medical students who suffer from poor sleep quality may be afflicted by distress. While the change of chronotype may improve sleep quality, few studies have focused on this association. The objective of this study is to analyze the effects of chronotype on sleep quality in medical students while controlling for confounding covariate factors. A cross-sectional survey on sleep quality was conducted among 5497 medical students. Sleep quality, chronotype, and lifestyle were measured according to the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Morningness-eveningness Questionnaire and Health-promoting Lifestyle Profile. Hierarchical logistic regression was conducted to analyze the influence of various factors, especially chronotype effect on sleep quality. Our results showed that the total score of sleep quality in evening-types was 5.43 ± 2.66, which was significantly higher than that in morning-types (3.88 ± 2.20, P < .001). Morning-type students (OR = 0.40, 95%CI = 0.29–0.55) and intermediate-type students (OR = 0.53, 95%CI = 0.41–0.69) had a lower risk of poor sleep quality compared to evening-types. The strongest predictor of sleep quality was chronotype while controlling for covariates (grade, gender, father’s educational level, mother’s educational level, internet addiction, mood state, midnight snack frequency, and health-promoting lifestyle profile). Based on the results, we believe that sleep quality among evening-type students may be improved by shifting to keep early hours.     

徐州市学龄期儿童肥胖现况调查及影响因素分析

目的:对徐州学龄期儿童的肥胖现状进行调查,分析其肥胖原因,以期找到有效的预防方法。方法:随机选取2014年1月-2016年1月徐州市学龄期儿童1021例,采用自理调查量表收集儿童及其父母的基本情况,统计儿童肥胖发生率,采用Logistic多因素回归分析儿童肥胖的影响因素。结果:男童肥胖率为11.15%(58/520),女童肥胖率为5.79%(29/501),男童肥胖率明显高于女童(P0.05);Logistic多因素回归分析显示,儿童肥胖危险因素有家族肥胖史(OR=3.647)、食欲(OR=2.065)、垃圾食品(OR=3.032)、甜食(OR=2.937),保护因素为周末运动时间(OR=-0.865)、体育特长(OR=-0.641)。结论:徐州学龄期儿童肥胖情况较为严重,应当控制肥胖儿童卡路里的摄入,积极进行体育锻炼,从各方面进行防治。     

四肢骨折矫形术后患者慢性手术后疼痛的发生率及其危险因素分析

目的:研究四肢骨折矫形术后患者慢性手术后疼痛的发生率及其危险因素。方法:以2014年12月-2017年10月于我院接受四肢骨折矫形术患者300例为研究对象,于术后6个月分析慢性手术后疼痛的发生率。收集所有患者年龄、性别、体重、术前疼痛程度、二次手术、麻醉方式、术后镇痛、术后引流、合并骨质疏松、骨折类型以及骨折部位等资料,并采用单因素以及多因素Logistic回归分析术后疼痛的危险因素。结果:术后6个月内有96名患者术后发生慢性手术后疼痛,发生率为32.00%(96/300)。单因素分析结果显示:慢性手术后疼痛患者与术前疼痛程度、是否二次手术、麻醉方式、术后有无镇痛、是否合并骨质疏松、骨折类型、骨折部位有关(P0.05),与患者的性别、年龄、体重、术后是否引流无关(P0.05)。多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示:术前重度疼痛、二次手术、麻醉方式为非全麻、术后无镇痛、合并骨质疏松、开放性骨折以及下肢骨折均是四肢骨折矫形术后发生慢性手术后疼痛的独立危险因素(P0.05)。结论:四肢骨折矫形术后患者慢性手术后疼痛的发生率较高,术前重度疼痛、二次手术、麻醉方式为非全麻、术后无镇痛、合并骨质疏松、开放性骨折以及下肢骨折均增加了慢性手术后疼痛的发生风险,临床应根据危险因素给予针对性的干预措施。     

胸外科手术术后神经病理性疼痛的发生情况及相关因素分析

目的:探讨胸外科手术术后神经病理性疼痛的发生情况及相关危险因素。方法:回顾性分析2015年至2016年就诊于我院行胸外科手术的患者的临床资料,包括患者的年龄、性别、吸烟史、BMI、术前是否使用催眠药物、术前诊断、手术侧别、手术方式、是否为微创、硬膜外自控镇痛泵使用情况、术中失血量、手术持续时间、引流管引流时间及是否发生神经病理性疼痛,对比分析是否发生神经病理性疼痛患者的临床资料,对有差异的临床资料进行多因素Logistic回归分析探讨发生神经病理性疼痛的危险因素。结果:共有123例患者纳入研究,33例(26.8%)患者的患者术后出现神经病理性疼痛,6例(4.9%)患者在术后一年仍有持续性神经性病理疼痛,术后出现神经病理性疼痛的平均时间为术后第7天,平均持续时间为75天,发生神经病理性疼痛的患者吸烟比例(81.8%)、术前使用催眠药比例(57.6%)、开胸手术比例(81.8%)、术中失血量(185 mL)、手术时间(196分钟)、术后引流时间(2.5天)均高于没有发生神经病理性疼痛的患者。多因素分析显示术前使用催眠药(OR=2.322,P<0.001)、手术时间延长(OR=3.703,P<0.001)和术后引流时间延长(OR=2.675,P=0.002)均是神经病理性疼痛发生的危险因素,电视辅助胸腔镜手术方式是保护性因素(OR=0.453,P=0.002)。结论:术前使用催眠药物、延长的手术时间及术后引流时间增加了神经病理性疼痛发生的风险,电视辅助胸腔镜技术可减少其发生率。     

Mapping the factors that influence the career specialty preferences by the undergraduate medical students

It is often perceived that undergraduate medical students do not select their career specialty until they are graduated. This study aimed to probe the preferences of undergraduate medical students about their career specialty and the factors influencing their choices. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 3rd through 5th year undergraduate medical students to record their choices of specialties and to identify the factors that influence their career selection. Out of 220 respondents, 29 (13.2%) students selected General Surgery, 24 (10.9%) Pediatrics, and 18 (8.2%) Internal Medicine as their career specialties; whereas 24 (10.9%) students were not able to select a major specialty. The least popular specialties were Gynecology and Obstetrics, Oncology, Histopathology, Orthopedics, Genetics, Psychology, each selected by one student. One hundred and seventeen (53.1%) thought their selected specialty ‘matched their capabilities’ and 82 (37.2%) perceived their selection as “innovative field in medicine”. Career advice by friends and families and the desire to serve academic institutions could not influence career selection. Career preferences by medical students result from the interplay of a range of factors. General Surgery, Pediatrics and Internal Medicine were the most preferred specialties. The professional grooming programs to target specialties matching the trainees’ capabilities and the specialties with state-of-the-art innovative technologies attract medical undergraduate students. The attained knowledge is vitally important for the policy makers in modifying the existing framework that can cater the popular and favored specialties.     

Belongingness in Early Secondary School: Key Factors that Primary and Secondary Schools Need to Consider

It is unknown if, and how, students redefine their sense of school belongingness after negotiating the transition to secondary school. The current study used longitudinal data from 266 students with, and without, disabilities who negotiated the transition from 52 primary schools to 152 secondary schools. The study presents the 13 most significant personal student and contextual factors associated with belongingness in the first year of secondary school. Student perception of school belongingness was found to be stable across the transition. No variability in school belongingness due to gender, disability or household-socio-economic status (SES) was noted. Primary school belongingness accounted for 22% of the variability in secondary school belongingness. Several personal student factors (competence, coping skills) and school factors (low-level classroom task-goal orientation), which influenced belongingness in primary school, continued to influence belongingness in secondary school. In secondary school, effort-goal orientation of the student and perception of their school’s tolerance to disability were each associated with perception of school belongingness. Family factors did not influence belongingness in secondary school. Findings of the current study highlight the need for primary schools to foster belongingness among their students at an early age, and transfer students’ belongingness profiles as part of the hand-over documentation. Most of the factors that influenced school belongingness before and after the transition to secondary are amenable to change.     

Attitudes towards Addressing Medical Absenteeism of Students: A Qualitative Study among Principals and Special Education Needs Coordinators in Dutch Secondary Schools

Background

Reducing school absenteeism benefits the health and educational opportunities of young people. The Dutch intervention Medical Advice for Sick-reported Students (abbreviated as MASS) was developed to address school absenteeism due to sickness reporting, also called medical absenteeism. This study is part of a research project on the effectiveness of MASS and explores factors that influence the implementation and dissemination of the intervention, from schools’ perspectives. The research questions include reasons schools have to implement MASS, their experiences in the implementation of MASS and their views on what is needed to ensure sustainable implementation.

Methods

A qualitative research method was used. Semi-structured interviews were held with nine principals and eight special education needs coordinators, working in nine secondary schools that apply MASS. Inductive content analysis was carried out.

Findings

The main reasons for schools to address medical absenteeism were their concerns about students’ well-being and future prospects and their wish to share these concerns with students’ parents. Participants also mentioned the wish to raise the threshold for reporting sick. According to the participants, MASS makes it easier for teachers to enter into conversation with students and their parents about medical absence. MASS prevents damage to the relationship with parents and medical problems being missed. In implementing MASS the main obstacles are teachers’ dialogue about medical absence with students and their parents, teachers’ follow-up of the feedback of the youth health care physicians (YHCPs), and correct registration. The participants were convinced that MASS also improves collaboration with parents regarding the optimization of care for students.

Conclusions

MASS allows schools to identify students at risk of dropout at an early stage and to optimise guidance of these students. The intervention matches schools’ need to address medical absenteeism by providing a clear framework, an approach from concern rather than control, and socio-medical expertise through the collaboration with YHCPs. MASS can support schools to maximize the number of students graduating and to improve parental involvement in school. These outcomes may help to put the subject of addressing medical absenteeism on the agenda of all schools, and contribute to prioritization, support adoption and secure sustainable implementation and dissemination of MASS.     

Students’ Perceptions of Peer-Organized Extra-Curricular Research Course during Medical School: A Qualitative Study

Early integration of research education into medical curricula is crucial for evidence-based practice. Yet, many medical students are graduating with no research experience due to the lack of such integration in their medical school programs. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a peer-organized, extra-curricular research methodology course on the attitudes of medical students towards research and future academic careers. Twenty one medical students who participated in a peer-organized research course were enrolled in three focus group discussions to explore their experiences, perceptions and attitudes towards research after the course. Discussions were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide, and were transcribed and thematically analyzed for major and minor themes identification. Our findings indicate that students’ perceptions of research changed after the course from being difficult initially to becoming possible. Participants felt that their research skills and critical thinking were enhanced and that they would develop research proposals and abstracts successfully. Students praised the peer-assisted teaching approach as being successful in enhancing the learning environment and filling the curricular gap. In conclusion, peer-organized extra-curricular research courses may be a useful option to promote research interest and skills of medical students when gaps in research education in medical curricula exist.     

膝关节镜手术联合矫形支具治疗对膝关节骨性关节炎患者围手术期指标、膝关节功能和关节活动度的影响

摘要 目的：探讨膝关节镜手术联合矫形支具治疗对膝关节骨性关节炎患者围手术期指标、膝关节功能和关节活动度的影响。方法：选取2020年1月到2023年1月膝关节骨性关节炎患者116例,分为观察组、对照组,每组58例。对照组采取单纯膝关节镜手术治疗,观察组采取膝关节镜手术联合矫形支具治疗,对比两组患者围术期相关指标,膝关节功能,术后并发症发生率以及关节活动度。结果：两组患者手术时间、术中出血量、切口长度、住院时间相关围术期指标对比无差异（P＞0.05）;两组患者治疗前美国特种外科医院膝关节评估（HSS）、美国膝关节协会评分（KSS）对比无差异（P＞0.05）,治疗后均升高,且与对照组相比,观察组高（P＜0.05）;观察组患者术后并关节炎进展、关节出血及纤维化、衬垫脱位、假体松动、感染等并发症总发生率明显低于对照组（P＜0.05）;两组患者治疗前最大关节伸直角度、最大关节屈伸活动度、胫骨平台后倾角和胫股角对比无明显差异（P＞0.05）,治疗后两组患者最大关节伸直角度、胫骨平台后倾角和胫股角均降低,观察组低于对照组,最大关节屈伸活动度升高,观察组高于对照组（P＜0.05）。结论：膝关节镜手术联合矫形支具治疗膝关节骨性关节炎能够降改善患者膝关节功能恢复水平,减少术后并发症发生情况,改善膝关节活动度。     

Factors associated with sleep duration in Brazilian high school students

The aim of this study was to investigate the factors associated with short sleep duration on southern Brazilian high school students. Our study was comprised of 1,132 adolescents aged 14 to 19 years, enrolled in public high schools in São José, Brazil. The students answered a questionnaire about working (work and workload), health perception, smoking, school schedule, sleep (duration and daytime sleepiness), and socio-demographics data. The results showed that more than two thirds of adolescent workers had short sleep duration (76.7%), and those with a higher workload (more than 20 hours) had a shorter sleep duration (7.07 hours) compared to non-workers (7.83 hours). In the analysis of factors associated with short sleep duration, adolescents who worked (OR = 2.12, 95% CI 1.53 to 2.95) were more likely to have short sleep duration compared to those who did not work. In addition, older adolescents (17–19 years) and students with poor sleep quality were 40% and 55% more likely to have short sleep duration compared to younger adolescents (14–16 years) and students with good sleep quality, respectively. Adolescents with daytime sleepiness were more likely to have short sleep duration (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.06 to 2.07) compared to those without excessive daytime sleepiness. In addition students of the morning shift (OR = 6.02, 95% CI 4.23 to 8.57) and evening shift (OR = 2.16, 95% CI 1.45 to 3.22) were more likely to have short sleep duration compared to adolescents of the afternoon shift. Thereby adolescents who are workers, older, attended morning and evening classes and have excessive daytime sleepiness showed risk factors for short sleep duration. In this sense, it is pointed out the importance of raising awareness of these risk factors for short sleep duration of students from public schools from São José, located in southern Brazil.     

Gesture-Controlled Image Management for Operating Room: A Randomized Crossover Study to Compare Interaction Using Gestures,Mouse, and Third Person Relaying

ObjectiveIn this work, we aim at comparing formally three different interaction modes for image manipulation that are usable in a surgery setting: 1) A gesture-controlled approach using Kinect ®; 2) oral instructions to a third part dedicated to manipulate the images; and 3) direct manipulation using a mouse.Results30 physicians and senior medical students participated in the experiment. Efficiency, measured as time used to pass the scenario, was best when using the mouse (M = 109.10s, SD = 25.96), followed by gesture-controlled (M = 214.97s, SD = 46.29) and oral instructions (M = 246.33s, SD = 76.50). Satisfaction, measured by a questionnaire, was rated highest in the condition mouse (M = 6.63, SD = 0.56), followed by gesture-controlled (M = 5.77, SD = 0.93) and oral instructions (M = 4.40, SD = 1.71). Differences in efficiency and satisfaction rating were significant. No significant difference in effectiveness, measured with error rates, was found.DiscussionThe study shows with formal evaluation that the use of gestures is advantageous over instructions to a third person. In particular, the use of gestures is more efficient than verbalizing instructions. The given gestures could be learned easily and reliability of the tested gesture-control system is good.ConclusionUnder the premise that mouse cannot be used directly during surgery, gesture-controlled approaches demonstrate to be superior to oral instructions for image manipulation.     

Does Breastfeeding Help to Reduce the Risk of Childhood Overweight and Obesity? A Propensity Score Analysis of Data from the KiGGS Study

BackgroundCurrent studies suggest that the beneficial effect of breastfeeding on overweight and obesity may have been largely overestimated. We examined the relationship between >4 months of full breastfeeding and overweight/obesity in children living in Germany.MethodsWe analyzed retrospectively collected data on breastfeeding from children aged 3–17 years who participated in the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS baseline study) between 2003 and 2006 (n = 13163). To minimize confounding, we applied propensity score matching and multivariate logistic regression analyses to estimate the effect of breastfeeding on childhood overweight and obesity.ResultsAdjusted analyses of the matched dataset (n = 8034) indicated that children who were breastfed for <4 months had a significant reduction in the odds of overweight (OR 0.81 [95% CI 0.71–0.92]) and obesity (OR 0.75 [95% CI 0.61–0.92]) compared to children who were not breastfed or who were breastfed for a shorter duration. Further analyses stratified by age group showed that the association was strongest in children aged 7–10 years (OR 0.67 [95% CI 0.53–0.84] for overweight and OR 0.56 [95% CI 0.39–0.81] for obesity), while no significant effect could be seen in other age groups.DiscussionOur findings support the hypothesis that breastfeeding does have a beneficial effect on childhood overweight and obesity, although the effect seems to be strongest in children of primary school age.     

The Selection of Medical Students in Western Canada

The methods employed in the selection of medical students for the 1964-65 class of freshmen at the four Western medical schools are described and recommendations are made for improving the procedure. The structure and functions of the various selection committees varied from school to school but their prime purpose was the same—the selection of “good students” who would later become “good physicians”. Not surprisingly, academic achievement and confidence in estimating this ranked highest in importance, and while non-intellectual characteristics ranked almost as high, committee members had no confidence that they could evaluate these qualities.It is suggested that the ideal selection committee would be a “high-priority” committee consisting of six to eight members who would meet at least twice a year, have tenure of at least four years, be trained in interviewing applicants, consider Medical College Admission Test scores, review applications before each meeting, and establish research committees to investigate the students they choose.