Effects of age and androgens upon functional vasoactive intestinal peptide receptors in rat prostatic epithelial cells

The specific binding of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and the stimulatory effect of VIP upon cyclic AMP accumulation in isolated epithelial cells of rat ventral prostate were age dependent. The number of VIP receptors decreased but the efficiency of VIP on cyclic AMP accumulation increased in prostatic epithelium when considering the periods 35-65 days and 3-6 months. Since these features could be related to the known age-related decrease of androgen and androgen-receptor levels, we studied the effect of testosterone and its 5 alpha-reduced metabolite dihydrotestosterone upon both steps of VIP action. The two steroid hormones exerted a non-competitive inhibition on VIP-induced cyclic AMP accumulation but did not modify VIP binding to its specific receptors. This modulatory effect of androgens might involve their interaction with specific sites on the cell membrane leading to modifications of membrane activities including adenylate cyclase, as has been suggested by an increasing number of recent reports.     

Regulation of GH3 pituitary tumour-cell adenylate cyclase activity by activators of protein kinase C.

The influence of protein kinase C (PKC) activation on cyclic AMP production in GH3 cells has been studied. The stimulation of cyclic AMP accumulation induced by forskolin and cholera toxin was potentiated by 4 beta-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBu). Moreover, PDBu, which causes attenuation of the maximal response to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), also induced a small right shift in the dose-response curve for VIP-induced cyclic AMP accumulation. PDBu-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation was unaffected by pretreatment of cells with pertussis toxin or the inhibitory muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine. PDBu stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity required the presence of a cytosolic factor which appeared to translocate to the plasma membrane in response to the phorbol ester. The diacylglycerol-generating agents thyroliberin, bombesin and bacterial phospholipase C each stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation, but, unlike PDBu, did not attenuate the stimulation induced by VIP. These results suggest that PKC affects at least two components of the adenylate cyclase complex. Stimulation of cyclic AMP accumulation is probably due to modification of the catalytic subunit, whereas attenuation of VIP-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation appears to be due to the phosphorylation of a different site, which may be the VIP receptor.     

Elevation of Intracellular Cyclic AMP and Stimulation of Adenylate Cyclase Activity by Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Glucaeon in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Both vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and glucagon rapidly elevated cyclic AMP levels in embryonic chick retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), in culture as well as in freshly dissected tissue. In cultured cells, the half-maximal activities of VIP and glucagon were 5 X 10(-8) M and 3 X 10(-8) M, respectively. After 3 min of reaction, VIP elevated intracellular cyclic AMP by 100-fold; elevation with glucagon was up to 10-fold. Both neuropeptides stimulated adenylate cyclase activity in RPE membranes. Glucagon showed a half-maximal activity of 1 X 10(-8) M. VIP remained more effective than glucagon in stimulating adenylate cyclase activity, but the dose-response curve was shifted to a higher concentration range when compared to that of the VIP-elevated intracellular cyclic AMP.     

A fragment of vasoactive intestinal peptide, VIP(10-28), is an antagonist of VIP in the colon carcinoma cell line, HT29

The 19 amino acid carboxyl terminus fragment of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), VIP(10-28), inhibits [125I]VIP binding in intact HT29 colonic adenocarcinoma cells and in membranes from these cells. However, VIP(10-28) alone has no effect on adenylate cyclase activity (membranes) or cyclic AMP synthesis (intact cells) in HT29 cells although VIP receptor agonists are markedly stimulatory. The indicated antagonist character of VIP(10-28) was confirmed by rightward parallel shifts of VIP dose response curves in the presence of VIP(10-28) in adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP synthesis experiments. The equilibrium dissociation constant values for VIP(10-28) from these experiments agree with values from inhibition binding studies. The lack of effect of VIP(10-28) on forskolin dose response curves in HT29 adenylate cyclase assays indicates the specificity of the VIP(10-28) antagonism, thus suggesting that VIP(10-28) may be a useful tool in studying VIP receptor regulation and other aspects of the mechanisms of VIP action. The potential regulatory role of a proteolytically generated fragment of VIP acting antagonistically at VIP receptors is discussed.     

Phorbol esters induce two distinct changes in GH3 pituitary cell adenylate cyclase activity

Phorbol esters alter cyclic AMP levels in a number of tissues, including the anterior pituitary. We report that membrane preparations from GH3 cells exposed to phorbol esters exhibit decreased vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-stimulated and enhanced forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. The responsiveness of adenylate cyclase activity to NaF, guanylyl-imidodiphosphate, and Mn2+ was also reduced by phorbol ester treatment. The ability of somatostatin to inhibit forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity was reduced while phorbol ester exposure had no apparent effect on somatostatin inhibition of VIP-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. We suggest that protein kinase C alters at least two distinct components of the adenylate cyclase system. One modification disrupts hormone receptor-Gs interaction (lowering VIP efficacy) and the second perturbation augments the activity of the adenylate cyclase catalytic subunit.     

Inhibition of prostaglandin E1-induced activation of adenylate cyclase in human blood platelet membrane

Activation of human blood platelet adenylate cyclase is initiated through the binding of prostaglandin E1 to the membrane receptors. Incubation of platelet membrane with [3H]prostaglandin E1 at pH 7.5 in the presence of 5 mM MgCl2 showed that the binding of the autacoid was rapid, reversible and highly specific. The binding was linearly proportional to the activation of adenylate cyclase. Although the membrane-bound radioligand could not be removed either by GTP or its stable analogue 5'-guanylylimido diphosphate, 150 nM cyclic AMP displaced about 40% of the bound agonist from the membrane. Scatchard analyses of the binding of the prostanoid to the membrane in the presence or absence of cyclic AMP showed that the nucleotide specifically inhibited the high-affinity binding sites without affecting the low-affinity binding sites. Incubation of the membrane with 150 mM cyclic AMP and varying amounts of prostaglandin E1 (25 nM to 1.0 microM) showed that the percent removal of the membrane-bound autacoid was similar to the percent inhibition of adenylate cyclase at each concentration of the agonist. At a concentration of 25 nM prostaglandin E1, both the binding of the agonist and the activity of adenylate cyclase were maximally inhibited by 40%. With the increase of the agonist concentration in the assay mixture, the inhibitory effects of the nucleotide gradually decreased and at a concentration of 1.0 microM prostaglandin E1 the effect of the nucleotide became negligible. These results show that cyclic AMP inhibits the activation of adenylate cyclase by low concentrations of prostaglandin E1 through the inhibition of the binding of the agonist to high-affinity binding sites.     

Effects of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Other Peptides on Cyclic AMP Accumulation in Intact Pieces and Isolated Horizontal Cells of the Teleost Retina

The effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and several other peptides have been examined on cyclic AMP accumulation in intact pieces and isolated horizontal cells of the teleost (carp) retina. VIP was the most effective peptide examined, inducing a dose-related response, and an approximately fivefold increase in cyclic AMP production when used at a concentration of 10 microM. Porcine histidine isoleucine-containing peptide and secretin, peptides structurally related to VIP, also stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation, but at concentrations of 10 microM induced responses which were only approximately 40% and 10%, respectively, of the response observed with 10 microM VIP. In contrast, several other peptides, including glucagon, neurotensin, somatostatin, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, cholecystokinin octapeptide26-33, gastrin-releasing peptide, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and VIP10-28 were totally inactive. The response to 10 microM VIP was not antagonized by several dopamine antagonists, indicating the presence of a population of specific VIP receptors coupled to adenylate cyclase, distinct from the population of dopamine receptors coupled to adenylate cyclase also known to be present in this tissue. Finally, experiments involving the use of fractions of isolated horizontal cells indicate that these neurons possess a population of VIP receptors coupled to cyclic AMP production which would appear to share a common pool of adenylate cyclase with a population of similarly coupled dopamine receptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Modulation of cyclic AMP accumulation in GH3 cells by a phorbol ester and thyroliberin

4 beta phorbol-12, 13-dibutyrate (PDBu) stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation in GH3 pituitary tumour cells in the presence of isobutylmethylxanthine. This effect persisted after preincubation of cells with cholera or pertussis toxins. In contrast, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation was inhibited by PDBu in a dose dependent fashion (IC50 = 5.1 nM). Thyroliberin (TRH) had a similar, but non-additive, stimulatory effect on cyclic AMP accumulation with PDBu, however it did not inhibit VIP stimulation. These results suggest that TRH may stimulate cyclic AMP accumulation through protein kinase C and that stimulation of adenylate cyclase by PDBu and TRH may occur distal to the guanine nucleotide binding regulatory proteins, Ns and Ni.     

Activation of insect cell adenylate cyclase by Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxins and melittin. Toxicity is independent of cyclic AMP.

Insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) delta-endotoxins are cytolytic to a range of insect cell lines in vitro. Addition of Bt var. aizawai or var. israelensis toxins to Mamestra brassicae (cabbage moth) cells in vitro increased intracellular cyclic AMP, which was paralleled by activation of adenylate cyclase in isolated membranes. Var. kurstaki toxin, which does not lyse M. brassicae cells, had no effect on cyclic AMP concentrations in intact cells, but was able to stimulate adenylate cyclase in membrane preparations. In contrast, the bee-venom toxin melittin, which is also cytolytic, increased intracellular cyclic AMP in whole cells, but inhibited adenylate cyclase in isolated membranes. Octopamine and forskolin also increased cyclic AMP in cells, but were not cytolytic. When added to cells at concentrations exceeding their LC90 (concentration causing 90% cell death), melittin and var. israelensis toxins caused cell lysis without a concomitant increase in intracellular cyclic AMP. Taken together, these results suggest that activation of adenylate cyclase by cytolytic toxins is a secondary effect (related perhaps to interactions of these toxins with membrane lipids) and is neither necessary nor sufficient for cytolysis.     

Evidence that helodermin, a newly extracted peptide from Gila monster venom, is a member of the secretin/VIP/PHI family of peptides with an original pattern of biological properties

Helodermin, a newly isolated peptide from the venom of Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) was shown to stimulate the adenylate cyclase activity of rat pancreatic membranes as efficiently as secretin and VIP. It also increased cyclic AMP levels and inhibited [125I]VIP binding in rat pancreatic acini. Finally, helodermin activated adenylate cyclase in membranes from rat heart, rat brain, and human heart, showing properties analogous yet distinct from those of secretin, VIP and PHI.     

Interactions between adenylate cyclase and the yeast GTPase-activating protein IRA1.

The adenylate cyclase system of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains many proteins, including the CYR1 polypeptide, which is responsible for catalyzing the formation of cyclic AMP from ATP, RAS1 and RAS2 polypeptides, which mediate stimulation of cyclic AMP synthesis by guanine nucleotides, and the yeast GTPase-activating protein analog IRA1. We have previously reported that adenylate cyclase is only peripherally bound to the yeast membrane. We have concluded that IRA1 is a strong candidate for a protein involved in anchoring adenylate cyclase to the membrane. We base this conclusion on the following criteria: (i) a disruption of the IRA1 gene produced a mutant with very low membrane-associated levels of adenylate cyclase activity, (ii) membranes made from these mutants were incapable of binding adenylate cyclase in vitro, (iii) IRA1 antibodies inhibit binding of adenylate cyclase to the membrane, and (iv) IRA1 and adenylate cyclase comigrate on Sepharose 4B.     

Adenosine potentiates lutropin-stimulated cyclic AMP production and inhibits lutropin-induced desensitization of adenylate cyclase in rat Leydig tumour cells.

The action of adenosine on lutropin (LH)-stimulated cyclic AMP production and LH-induced desensitization of adenylate cyclase in rat Leydig tumour cells was investigated. Adenosine and N6-(phenylisopropyl)adenosine caused a dose-dependent potentiation of LH-stimulated cyclic AMP production at concentrations (0.01-10 microM) which alone did not produce an increase in cyclic AMP production. However, 2-deoxyadenosine had no effect either alone or in combination with LH on cyclic AMP production. The potentiation produced by adenosine was unaffected by concentrations of the specific nucleoside-transport inhibitor dipyridamole, which inhibited [3H]adenosine uptake by up to 90%. The phosphodiesterase inhibitor 3-isobutyl-l-methylxanthine, but not RO-10-1724, inhibited the adenosine-induced potentiation. In the presence of adenosine, the kinetics of LH-stimulated cyclic AMP production were linear with time up to 2h, compared with those with LH alone, which showed a characteristic decrease in rate of cyclic AMP production after the first 15-20 min. Consistent with the altered kinetics, adenosine also inhibited the LH-induced desensitization of adenylate cyclase. These results suggest that adenosine has effects on rat tumour Leydig cells through receptors on the external surface of the plasma membrane. This receptor has characteristics similar to those of the R-type receptors, which have been shown either to stimulate or to inhibit adenylate cyclase. However, the effects of adenosine in the present studies does not involve a direct inhibition or activation of adenylate cyclase, but may involve an as yet undefined receptor-mediated modulation of adenylate cyclase.     

Effect of Ricinus communis toxin on cyclic adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate metabolism in Yoshida ascites sarcoma cells.

Prostaglandin E1 (2.5 mug/ml) enhanced the level of cyclic adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) three to four times in Yoshida ascites sarcoma (YS) cells cultured in vitro. When Ricinus communis toxin (RC-toxin) was added 30 min after the addition of prostaglandin E1, the enhanced level of cyclic AMP in the YS cells decreased rapidly. Of RC-toxin, 0.2 mug/ml was enough to produce the maximum effect. By addition of 5 mM lactose with RC-toxin, approximately 60% of the RC-toxin effect on the levels of cyclic AMP was abolished. This indicates that the specific binding of RC-toxin on the surface membrane is largely responsible for the observed decrease of the cyclic AMP level. The toxin treatment did not induce either leakage of cyclic AMP from the cell or change in the activity of cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. However, the treatment of YS cells with RC-toxin caused a decrease of adenylate cyclase activity when the activity was measured at a substrate concentration of 0.15 mM ATP. In contrast, there was little difference with the control when the activity was assayed at a higher ATP concentration, 0.24 mM. It was found that the K-m of adenylate cyclase for ATP was changed by RC-toxin from 0.1 to 0.25 mM, and that the Mg2+ activation of the enzyme observable in untreated cells disappeared. These results suggested that the decrease in the level of cyclic AMP in YS cells induced by RC-toxin can be explained in terms of the change in K-m of the adenylate cyclase activity.     

ATP enhances cyclic AMP accumulation by intact P388 mouse lymphoma cells

One of the characteristics of malignant cells is a poor response to hormones and a low level of cyclic AMP. Whilst this is true of intact P388 mouse lymphoma cells, high levels of adenylate cyclase (ATP pyrophosphate-lyase (cyclizing), EC 4.6.1.1) activity can be measured in particulate preparations of these cells. When ATP is added to the incubation medium of intact lymphoma cells, the cyclic AMP level is enhanced. This effect of ATP is not mediated by adenosine, nor is it enhanced by NaF. The ATP content of the lymphoma cells is much lower than that of CH23 Chinese hamster fibroblast and PCM3 hybrid cells, whose cyclic AMP levels are not affected by the presence of ATP. This suggests that adenylate cyclase, in the lymphoma cells, is bathed in a pool which is deficient in substrate. The substrate concentration of this pool is thought to be elevated by addition of ATP to the incubation medium with ATP, itself, crossing the plasma membrane.     

Evidence that the mitochondrial activator of phosphorylated branched-chain 2-oxoacid dehydrogenase complex is the dissociated E1 component of the complex

The ability of glucagon (10 nM) to increase hepatocyte intracellular cyclic AMP concentrations was reduced markedly by the tumour-promoting phorbol ester TPA (12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate). The half-maximal inhibitory effect occurred at 0.14 ng/ml TPA. This action occurred in the presence of the cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor isobutylmethylxanthine (1 mM) indicating that TPA inhibited glucagon-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. TPA did not affect either the binding of glucagon to its receptor or ATP concentrations within the cell. TPA did inhibit the increase in intracellular cyclic AMP initiated by the action of cholera toxin (1 microgram/ml) under conditions where phosphodiesterase activity was blocked. TPA did not inhibit glucagon-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity in a broken plasma membrane preparation unless Ca2+, phosphatidylserine and ATP were also present. It is suggested that TPA exerts its inhibitory effect on adenylate cyclase through the action of protein kinase C. This action is presumed to be exerted at the point of regulation of adenylate cyclase by guanine nucleotides.     

Secretin Stimulates Cyclic AMP Formation in the Rat Brain

The effects of secretin on cyclic AMP levels in the rat brain were determined. Incubation of rat brain frontal cortex slices with secretin or the structurally related peptides peptide histidine leucine (PHI) or vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in the presence of 10 mM theophylline resulted in a dose-dependent increase in the cyclic AMP levels. The half-maximal increase in cyclic AMP occurred using a 1 microM dose of secretin or a 2 microM dose of PHI or VIP. Preincubation of slices with secretin-(5-27) produced a dose-dependent inhibition of the secretin but not VIP- or PHI-stimulated increase in the cyclic AMP content. Also, in receptor binding studies, secretin-(5-27) produced a dose-dependent inhibition (Ki = 400 nM) of 125I-secretin but not of 125I-VIP binding to rat brain membranes. Guanyl-5'-yl imidodiphosphate decreased the affinity of radiolabelled secretin binding as a result of an increased rate of dissociation of bound 125I-secretin. These data suggest that secretin receptors in the rat brain may be coupled to adenylate cyclase in a stimulatory manner and that secretin-(5-27) may function as a central secretin receptor antagonist.     

Regulation of cyclic AMP accumulation in lymphoid cells

We have examined several features of the regulation of cyclic AMP accumulation in lymphoid cells isolated from peripheral blood of human subjects and in the murine T-lymphoma cell line, S49, S49 cells are unique because of the availability of variant clones with lesions in the pathway of cyclic AMP generation and response. We found that human lymphoid cells prepared at 4 degrees C showed substantially greater cyclic AMP accumulation in response to histamine and the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol than did cells prepared at ambient temperature. The muscarinic cholinergic agonist carbamylcholine and peptide hormone somatostatin failed to inhibit cyclic AMP accumulation in human lymphoid cells and treatment with pertussis toxin (which blocks function of Gi, the guanine nucleotide binding protein that mediates inhibition of adenylate cyclase) only minimally increased cyclic AMP levels in these cells. Thus the Gi component of adenylate cyclase appears to play only a small role in modulating cyclic AMP levels in this mixed population of lymphoid cells. Incubation of whole blood with isoproterenol desensitized human lymphocytes to subsequent stimulation with beta agonist. This desensitization was associated with a redistribution of beta-adrenergic receptors such that a substantial portion of the receptors in intact cells could no longer bind a hydrophilic antagonist. Wild-type S49 lymphoma cells showed a similar redistribution of beta-adrenergic receptors after a few minutes' incubation with agonist. Based on studies in S49 variants, this redistribution is independent of components distal to receptors in the adenylate cyclase/cyclic AMP pathway. By contrast, a more slowly developing, agonist-mediated down-regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors was blunted in variants with defective interaction between receptors and Gs, the guanine nucleotide binding protein that mediates stimulation of adenylate cyclase. Unlike results in human lymphoid cells, S49 cells show a prominent inhibition of cyclic AMP accumulation mediated by Gi; this inhibition is promoted by somatostatin and blocked by pertussis toxin. Inhibition by Gi is unable to account for the marked decrease in ability of the diterpene forskolin to maximally stimulate adenylate cyclase in S49 variants having defective Gs. These results emphasize that both Gs and Gi component are important in modulating cyclic AMP accumulation and receptors linked to adenylate cyclase in S49 lymphoma cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

α-Adrenergic inhibition of cyclic AMP accumulation in epithelial cells isolated from rat small intestine

The present work shows that α-adrenergic agonists induce the suppression of basal and hormone-stimulated cyclic AMP levels in rat intestinal epithelial cells. Epinephrine (100 μM) suppresses by 35% the cyclic AMP levels evoked by the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). The adrenergic agent induces a similar percentage of inhibition at 15, 30 and 37°C. Addition of epinephrine 20 min prior to, on 5 or 20 min after VIP yields the same magnitude of inhibition as when performed together with the stimulus. The α-adrenergic agent does not alter the K_0.5 of VIP in stimulating cyclic AMP production but reduces its efficacy. Epinephrine also suppresses prostaglandin E₁- and E₂-stimulated cyclic AMP levels by about 35%. The lowest effective concentration of epinephrine required to suppress VIP-stimulated cyclic AMP levels is 0.1 μM, half-maximal (K_0.5) and maximal effects being observed at 5 and 100 μM, respectively. Norepinephrine has the same efficacy but a slightly lower potency (K_0.5 = 18 μM) than epinephrine. Phenylephrine acts as a partial agonist of very low potency; clonidine has very little intrinsic activity and antagonizes the inhibition by epinephrine. The inhibition of VIP-stimulated cyclic AMP levels is observed in the absence of any blocking agents. It is not affected by the β blocker propranolol, but is completely reversed with α blockers with the following order of potency: dihydroergotamine>yohimbine>phentolamine. Yohimbine is much more potent than prazosin, which only partially reverses the inhibition induced by epinephrine. It is concluded that α-adrenoreceptors of the α₂ subtype mediate the suppression of VIP-stimulated cyclic AMP levels in intestinal epithelial cells. This effect is likely to be due to the inhibition of adenylate cyclase within intact cells as epinephrine is able to reduce adenylate cyclase activity of intestinal epithelial cell plasma membranes.     

The invasive adenylate cyclase of Bordetella pertussis. Intracellular localization and kinetics of penetration into various cells.

The penetration of Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase into various mammalian cells exhibits similar kinetics; the accumulation of both intracellular cyclase activity and cyclic AMP is rapid, reaching constant levels after 15-60 min of incubation. The kinetics of enzyme penetration into turkey erythrocytes is different; cyclase activity and cyclic AMP accumulate linearly and do not reach constant levels even after 6 h of incubation. In the preceding paper [Friedman, Farfel & Hanski (1987) Biochem. J. 243, 145-151] we have suggested that the constant level of intracellular cyclase activity reflects a steady state formed by continuous penetration and intracellular inactivation of the enzyme. In contrast with other mammalian cells, no inactivation of cyclase is observed in turkey erythrocytes. These results further support the notion that there is continuous penetration and deactivation of the invasive enzyme in mammalian cells. A 5-6-fold increase in specific activity of the invasive cyclase is detected in a pellet fraction of human lymphocytes in which a similar increase in specific activity of the plasma-membrane marker 5'-nucleotidase is observed. A similar increase in the invasive-cyclase specific activity is detected in a membrane fraction of human erythrocytes. Cyclase activity in a membrane-enriched fraction of human lymphocytes reached a constant level after 20 min of cell exposure to the enzyme. Similar time courses were observed for accumulation of cyclase activity and cyclic AMP in whole lymphocytes [Friedman, Farfel & Hanski (1987) Biochem, J. 243, 145-151]. We suggest therefore that cyclic AMP generation by the invasive enzyme as well as the intracellular inactivation process occur while it is associated with a membrane fraction identical, or closely associated, with the plasma membrane.     

The interaction of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) with isolated bovine thyroid plasma membranes

The binding of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and stimulation of adenylate cyclase were studied in bovine thyroid plasma membranes. The binding depended on time, temperature and was saturable and specific. Binding studies suggested the presence of two classes of binding sites: a class with high affinity (Kd = 13 nM) and low capacity (6411 sites/pg), and a class with low affinity (Kd = 480 nm) and high capacity (105,300 sites/pg) at 15 degrees C. Secretin, glucagon, insulin and somatostatin did not displace the tracer from the membranes. VIP stimulated cyclic AMP production. Maximal cyclic AMP production (2-fold above basal values) was observed with 100 nM VIP and half-maximal response was obtained at 5 nM VIP at 15 degrees C.