landscapemetrics: an open‐source R tool to calculate landscape metrics

Quantifying landscape characteristics and linking them to ecological processes is one of the central goals of landscape ecology. Landscape metrics are a widely used tool for the analysis of patch‐based, discrete land‐cover classes. Existing software to calculate landscape metrics has several constraints, such as being limited to a single platform, not being open‐source or involving a complicated integration into large workflows. We present landscapemetrics, an open‐source R package that overcomes many constraints of existing landscape metric software. The package includes an extensive collection of commonly used landscape metrics in a tidy workflow. To facilitate the integration into large workflows, landscapemetrics is based on a well‐established spatial framework in R. This allows pre‐processing of land‐cover maps or further statistical analysis without importing and exporting the data from and to different software environments. Additionally, the package provides many utility functions to visualize, extract, and sample landscape metrics. Lastly, we provide building‐blocks to motivate the development and integration of new metrics in the future. We demonstrate the usage and advantages of landscapemetrics by analysing the influence of different sampling schemes on the estimation of landscape metrics. In so doing, we demonstrate the many advantages of the package, especially its easy integration into large workflows. These new developments should help with the integration of landscape analysis in ecological research, given that ecologists are increasingly using R for the statistical analysis, modelling and visualization of spatial data.     

Traffic-induced noise levels in residential urban structures using landscape metrics as indicators

Traffic noise is one of the most prominent environmental stressors in cities. It often results in cardiorespiratory diseases among urban dwellers and thus counteracts important urban health targets. Using the city of Leipzig in Germany as a case study, we show that the noise level depends on the properties of the urban structure type, determined by landscape metrics. Landscape metrics, as a type of indicator, describe potential noise in residential areas in cases in which no measured data are available, e.g., for future planning purposes. Potential noise conflict areas can be efficiently, easily and reliably detected. For each considered residential urban structure type, we computed nine different models to evaluate the noise level and the number of exposed persons in addition to 14 landscape metrics for all patches of the urban structure type. The results offer significant correlations between noise level and landscape metrics. In addition, construction height and total built area was found to reduce the noise level in neighbourhoods. These results can be adopted for other cities in Europe facing considerable structural changes in residential areas.     

不同干扰背景下景观指数与物种多样性的多尺度效应——以巩义市为例

以黄河中下游山地丘陵区的巩义市为研究区,采用典型样地法对灌草丛、人工林和农田边缘3种不同干扰背景下的自然、半自然生境内的植物进行调查。基于景观生态学原理,在地理信息系统技术支持下,借助于Fragstatta3.3软件,以调查样地为中心,计算了150、250、500、750、1000、1250、1500m不同半径缓冲区内表征景观形状(Edge and patch shape)、边缘对照(Edge contrast)、相似度和邻近度(Proximity and similarity)、景观多样性(Diversity)、基质(Texture)、斑块大小和密度(Patch size and patch density)共6类52个指数,运用冗余分析(RDA)筛选出不同尺度下对该区农业景观中植物多样性有显著影响的景观指数。结果表明:不同尺度,景观指数对物种多样性的影响变化显著。灌草丛生境,在500—750m范围内,SHAPE_AM指数和PARA_AM指数能够很好的解释物种多样性,解释量为33.6%;人工林生境,SHAPE_AM指数、AREA_CV指数、SIMI指数和PAFRAC指数在1000—1250m范围内对物种多样性的解释量达到48.1%;农田边缘生境,GYRATE_CV指数、ENN_CV指数、PARA_MN指数和FRAC_AM指数在750—1250m范围内对物种多样性影响显著,解释量为32%。其中,辛普森多样性指数(SIDI)与灌草丛物种多样性在750—1250m范围内作用显著,ENN_CV指数仅对农田边缘物种多样性影响较大。景观指数对物种多样性的影响具有尺度依赖性,未来应全面综合探讨这些指数的尺度效应及在景观生态学中的应用。     

Sensitivity of landscape measurements to changing grain size for fine-scale design and management

Landscape pattern quantities are affected by issues of scale, namely extent and resolution. The grain size (resolution) of fine-resolution geographic information system (GIS) data for two highly fragmented landscapes in USA and Italy were altered to evaluate the effect of grain size changes on landscape pattern metrics and cost-surface model outputs. Beginning with 3 m resolution data and resampling the data to 300 m resolution, we applied pattern metrics and cost-surface models (available in GIS software) and evaluated the types of behaviors in resulting quantities. Results showed that some pattern metrics are robust to changes in grain size (such as area, cohesion, interspersion and juxtaposition metrics), while others exhibit staircase-like or erratic responses. Compared to previous studies, we identified behavioral responses that differ from grain-size changes at coarser resolutions. Cost-surface models demonstrated robust or consistent responses to grain size changes in most cases. For both types of pattern measurement, however, we found that behaviors could differ contextually; that is, there could be different types of behaviors for different landscapes, classifications, or grain sizes. Results indicate that comparing spatial data collected at different scales (such as historical data to more recent, high-resolution sensed data) is complicated by different types of responses to changes in grain size. This may limit the applicability of tools for the measurement of landscape change over time if landscapes are represented by differently scaled data.     

景观格局指标对不同景观格局的反应

探讨了在人为控制不同因子变量的条件下各景观格局指标对由中性随机模型产生的不同景观格局系列的反应 ,以评价一些常用指标的实用性和局限性。研究结果表明 ,大部分指标所指示的格局特征往往是不全面的 ,即它们只对格局系列中个别因子的变化敏感 ,而对另一些因子的变化反应迟钝。比较值得推荐的指标有 :总斑块数目 ,平均斑块大小 ,总边界密度 ,分维数 ,蔓延度 ,聚集度。但即使是这些指标 ,也各有其局限性 ,且存在冗余。由此提醒读者在运用景观格局指标时应在了解其实际意义的基础上 ,结合生态学过程慎重选择和解释 ,避免陷于数字游戏。     

景观指数耦合景观格局与土壤侵蚀的有效性

景观格局分析是景观生态学中揭示景观变化及其生态效应的主要方法,而景观指数是景观格局分析中广泛使用的工具。土壤侵蚀是土壤物质在景观中的迁移和再分配过程,受地形、植被和人类活动及其空间格局的调控。运用景观格局分析揭示景观格局变化特别是土地利用/覆被格局变化对土壤侵蚀的影响是土壤侵蚀研究中应用景观生态学原理和方法的典型。在当前的研究中,斑块-廊道-基质范式下建立的景观指数对侵蚀过程的解释能力不断受到质疑,建立筛选适用的景观指数的原则和方法十分必要。以延河流域碾庄沟小流域为例,利用WATEM/SEDEM模型模拟多个年份流域侵蚀产沙和输沙量;基于土地利用/覆被数据,利用Fragstat4.2软件,计算了相应年份流域斑块、边界密度、形状、集聚与分散和斑块类型多样性4个方面的代表性景观指数。在此基础上,分析了景观指数与流域侵蚀产沙和输沙之间的关系,讨论了景观指数在土壤侵蚀研究中的有效性,在景观和斑块类型水平上分析了景观指数表达"源"、"汇"两大类景观类型的空间格局与侵蚀产沙和输沙之间的关系的一致性。结果表明:斑块-廊道-基底范式下发展的景观指数在指示景观格局的土壤侵蚀效应时存在局限。相对而言,斑块类型尺度的景观指数更能有效表达景观格局与土壤侵蚀的关系。基于景观类型在土壤侵蚀过程中的"源"、"汇"功能,提出了在土壤侵蚀研究中筛选适用的景观指数的原则:(1)对"源"、"汇"两类景观类型,景观指数与土壤侵蚀状况表征变量的相关系数符号相反;(2)对同为"源"或"汇"景观类型的多个景观类型,景观指数与土壤侵蚀表征变量的相关系数应具有符号一致性。尽管景观指数在斑块类型水平上具有一定的有效性,但用其预测景观格局变化的侵蚀效应有很大的不确定性。因此,基于土壤侵蚀过程与景观格局的作用机制发展新型的景观指数是增强景观格局分析预测土壤侵蚀过程的能力的途径。     

Indicating landscape fragmentation using L–Z complexity

Landscape metrics have been widely applied to measure landscape fragmentation in recent years. However, those metrics or indicators have their own specific application. Searching better performance metric or method to quantify the landscape fragmentation is still challenging issue. In this paper an L–Z complexity method for the measurement of landscape fragmentation was presented. After introducing the algorithm of L–Z complexity and converting landscape structure data to symbolic sequence, the implementation of this methodology was demonstrated using synthetic data generated by SIMMAP software and real urban land use data. The results show that the L–Z complexity can efficiently detect differentiation of landscape fragmentation controlled by SIMMAP parameters m, n and p. As to the application in real landscape, L–Z complexity is also a good indicator to identify the landscape fragmentation, which integrates some metrics information of landscape composition, shape and configuration. L–Z complexity provides an alternative approach to measuring the landscape fragmentation.     

景观格局-土壤侵蚀研究中景观指数的意义解释及局限性

景观格局分析是景观生态学研究的重要组成部分。景观指数是景观格局分析的有力工具。近年来,景观格局与土壤侵蚀关系的相关研究增多,常规景观格局指数得到应用。但针对土壤侵蚀过程的景观指数意义解释不足,景观指数在刻画景观格局-土壤侵蚀过程关系存在局限。选择了连接性、多样性、边界/斑块密度、形状4个方面的12个常用景观指数,对这些指数在景观格局-土壤侵蚀过程关系研究中的意义进行阐述,对指数应用的局限性及其原因进行了分析。景观数据属性、景观指数本身性质和土壤侵蚀过程的复杂性使得常规景观格局指数在景观格局-土壤侵蚀关系研究中存在不足。这3方面的影响使得常规景观格局指数与土壤侵蚀表征变量之间不存在确定的关系,从而难以通过景观指数来表征景观土壤侵蚀特征。缺乏土壤侵蚀过程基础是常规景观指数在土壤侵蚀研究应用中存在局限的主要原因。因此,构建基于土壤侵蚀过程的景观指数是景观格局-土壤侵蚀关系研究的需要和新的发展方向。     

On using landscape metrics for landscape similarity search

Landscape similarity search involves finding landscapes from among a large collection that are similar to a query landscape. An example of such collection is a large land cover map subdivided into a grid of smaller local landscapes, a query is a local landscape of interest, and the task is to find other local landscapes within a map which are perceptually similar to the query. Landscape search and the related task of pattern-based regionalization, requires a measure of similarity – a function which quantifies the level of likeness between two landscapes. The standard approach is to use the Euclidean distance between vectors of landscape metrics derived from the two landscapes, but no in-depth analysis of this approach has been conducted. In this paper we investigate the performance of different implementations of the standard similarity measure. Five different implementations are tested against each other and against a control similarity measure based on histograms of class co-occurrence features and the Jensen–Shannon divergence. Testing consists of a series of numerical experiments combined with visual assessments on a set of 400 3 km-scale landscapes. Based on the cases where visual assessment provides definitive answer, we have determined that the standard similarity measure is sensitive to the way landscape metrics are normalized and, additionally, to whether weights aimed at controlling the relative contribution of landscape composition vs. configuration are used. The standard measure achieves the best performance when metrics are normalized using their extreme values extracted from all possible landscapes, not just the landscapes in the given collection, and when weights are assigned so the combined influence of composition metrics on the similarity value equals the combined influence of configuration metrics. We have also determined that the control similarity measure outperforms all implementations of the standard measure.     

基于多源遥感数据的景观格局及预测研究

以TM、中巴资源卫星和环境与灾害监测预报小卫星等遥感影像为数据源,利用ENVI 4.7、ARCGIS 9.2、IDRISI 15等软件,研究了西安市辖区的景观特征与空间格局,预测了未来的景观变化,提出了景观格局预测的数据转化和多距离空间分析的精简步骤.结果表明:研究区的景观本底是一个由林地和耕地构成的复合景观基质,建设用地在研究时段内呈现持续增加趋势,且2004-2011年间的增加量高于2000-2004年间的增加量;林地面积略有降低,林地和草地总面积略呈增长趋势,水域和未利用地面积变化较小.研究时段内的景观破碎化程度在降低,林地景观的连通性增强了,耕地的降低了.各景观类型在所设定的最大预期研究尺度下均呈现显著的聚集空间格局;各年和各景观类型之间的聚集、随机和离散的临界阈值差别相对比较大;水域和未利用地的空间聚集强度明显高于耕地、林地、草地和城乡建设用地;耕地和草地空间分布存在一个异质性最大的特征尺度,且均出现了聚集分布、随机分布和离散分布3种分布格局,以2011年最为明显.利用景观指数法和多距离空间聚类分析方法研究景观格局特征的效果要比单一的景观指数法较理想.CA-Markov模型模拟的结果基本能够反映未来的景观格局状况.     

Integrating small-scale landscape elements into land use/cover: The impact on landscape metrics’ values

Over the last 30 years the use and misuse of landscape metrics has been widely studied. However, there has been less attention on incorporating small-scale landscape elements into landscape analysis. Data type used in the analysis can be either vector or raster, while the raster format is more widely used. However, using large-scale topographical vector databases has several advantages – they cover whole countries with very detailed and accurate topographical data. Despite the high level of detail, their amount in Mb is small, which allows simultaneously to analyse large areas. The peculiarity of vector data is that small-scale landscape elements are mapped as point elements or lines. For calculating landscape metrics, the integration of these features and LULC (land use/cover) polygons is needed. In the current study we investigated how integration of point and linear elements into polygon layers affects the values of landscape metrics. Adding line buffers influenced metrics’ values more than adding point elements. The ensemble of point and linear objects is similar to linear objects. Our study revealed that integrating small-scale landscape elements into land use/cover layers by using buffers gives more realistic values if the buffer size is in compliance with the size of the phenomena in the real world and suitable landscape metrics are chosen. However, the metrics that responded to adding small-scale landscape elements in correspondence with their real world impact on landscape metric values might not always be the best ecological indicators in terms of small-scale landscape elements. Another issue is that values of landscape metrics depend directly on the number of classes determined in the data specification, and on the data model. If the number of mappable point and linear objects changes, or the data model of the linear objects changes, the values of landscape metrics differ.     

景观格局指数间相关关系对植被覆盖度等级分类数的响应

运用景观指数进行景观格局分析已成为景观生态学的主要研究方法。但是,由于景观本身的复杂性以及景观格局指数之间的相关性,其应用与发展受到制约。选用面积/周长/密度、形状和蔓延度等3类共28个指数,以广州市中心城区为研究区域,以TM遥感影像为数据源形成植被覆盖度等级图,在景观类型水平上探讨各类型内指数之间的相关性及其对景观分类数的敏感程度。相关性分析表明:景观格局指数间都存在一定的相关性,但是相关程度差异较大,其中面积/周长/密度类指数间的相关性最强,蔓延度类指数其次,形状类指数间独立性相对较强。敏感性分析结果显示:117个指数对的相关关系都随景观分类数发生变化,根据其变化类型和程度,可以分为简单型、分段型、复杂型等3种指数关系响应的类型,分别包括12、31和74对指数;敏感曲线还表明4或5是指数对之间相关关系最敏感的分类数;不仅如此,分类数对景观格局指数之间相关关系的影响程度因景观格局指数所属的类别而异,面积/周长/密度类型指数不敏感,其次是蔓延度类指数,最敏感的是形状类指数;最后,研究结果表明景观格局指数间的相关性对分类数的敏感性存在较大的空间变异。     

Landscape structure versus the effectiveness of nature conservation: Roztocze region case study (Poland)

The objective of the study was to examine the extent to which landscape metrics could be used as an indicator of efficient management of protection areas. The selected sampling areas were natural–landscape units distinguished within the Roztocze Region located in the central-east Poland. Among 446 units, those representing three typological groups determined by three factors were selected. The factors included (1) the area of the unit; (2) the dominant or characteristic type of ecosystem; and (3) the form of protection. Subsequently, thirteen landscape metrics were calculated with the application of the Fragstats software. The analysis revealed high correlation between the form of nature protection and the majority of the calculated indexes. National park units show the highest landscape diversity and stability of various types of ecosystems. This suggests high conservation efficiency. Landscape park units are distinguished by fragmented patchy composition, and spatial structure even less stable than that of the non-protected areas. The study results show that landscape metrics could be used as an indicator of efficient management of different forms of nature protection. They provide an insight into the structure and functioning of the environment at various levels of its organisation. We particularly found diversity metrics to be useful for indicating whether nature conservation goals are archived, and the size and density metric for measuring human interference in the landscape. The selection and interpretation of indexes should be determined by the specific character of a given area.     

景观生态学原理在城市土地利用分类中的应用

根据城市相同土地利用类型具有相似景观格局特征的原理,探讨了融合景观格局特征指数和遥感技术的城市土地利用信息提取的新方法。以北京市五环内建城区为例,研究表明,在斑块类型水平和景观水平上,居住用地和非居住用地内景观斑块的大小、形状、边缘特征、空间连接度、核心区面积特征、多样性、均匀性等特征都有极显著的差异。进一步融合TM遥感影像和这些景观格局特征指数,提取了居民用地和非居民用地类型,总分类精度是79.7%,Kappa系数达到59.8%。研究揭示,景观生态学原理的引入,为传统的遥感技术应用提供了新的思路,在格局复杂的城市土地利用信息提取中有很大的应用发展潜力。     

Enhanced analysis of landscape structure: Inclusion of transition zones and small-scale landscape elements

Landscape diversity is an essential component of biodiversity because it determines the diversity of habitats and species. It is necessary to adopt an adaptive and realizable landscape structure monitoring model for ecosystem management. However, the existing methods of landscape structure analysis often do not consider the transitions between different types of patch, which are dynamic and play several functional roles in landscape structure. Another component of information that has often been ignored is “small-scale landscape elements” inside patches, which leads to within-patch heterogeneity being underestimated. This paper presents a method for solving these problems by regular landscape monitoring using RapidEye remote sensing data. We incorporate the third altitude dimension in landscape structure analysis, especially for detecting certain small-scale landscape structures such as groves, tree rows, and transitions at forest boundaries. For these detailed structures a number of landscape metrics are computed under a three-dimensional perspective. The results indicate that a more realistic and more precise representation of landscape structure is obtained on the basis of the detailed spatial scale and the true surface geometries of patches. Taking transitions into account helps smooth “edge effects” between patches and leads to more realistic quantification of fragmentation.     

广州市主城区树冠覆盖景观格局梯度

城市树冠覆盖是城市森林在小尺度上的景观表达,是衡量城市森林生态功能服务质量的重要指标.通过在ArcGIS9.2中对广州市中心城区的高分辨率航片进行目视解译,对形成的树冠覆盖专题图分析并生成栅格数据,利用Fragstats3.3软件分别选择标准方法和移动窗口方法分析研究区景观格局特征.其中基于移动窗口法形成了一系列基于所选择格局特征的连续栅格表面,每一个栅格单元代表的是设定的移动窗口半径尺度下景观类型的格局特征.分析表明,研究区景观格局呈现明显的空间异质性梯度特征.基于样带区尺度效应分析的结果表明,粒度3-5m和移动窗口半径400-600m可适合于研究区的景观格局梯度分析,选择的景观指数能够形成较为平滑的栅格表面.基于移动窗口的分析结果以连续变量图的形式对景观格局空间异质性进行可视化表达,能够为小尺度上的城市森林景观格局优化提供重要的参考.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区景观格局对流域侵蚀产沙过程的影响——斑块类型水平

在黄土丘陵沟壑区,景观格局对侵蚀产沙过程有着复杂的影响,且与尺度密切相关。选取河口-龙门区间内42个水文站控制流域为研究对象,以侵蚀模数、输沙模数和泥沙输移比作为表征各流域单元内土壤侵蚀、产沙及泥沙输移过程的特征指标,运用景观指数和CCA排序,系统分析了斑块类型水平上景观格局对流域侵蚀产沙过程的影响。结果表明:流域侵蚀产沙及泥沙输移过程中,空间分异特征随景观类型不同而异;对于不同用地类型,影响"过程"空间分异的景观格局指标不同,显著影响流域侵蚀产沙及泥沙输移过程的景观指数有草地平均斑块面积(AREA_MN3)、居民建设用地景观面积百分比(PLAND5)、居民建设用地和其它类型用地景观的斑块密度(PD5和PD6),其中斑块密度(PD)是影响流域侵蚀产沙及泥沙输移过程的共性指标;草地、居民建设用地、其它类型用地的景观格局特征对"过程"变化的解释程度要高于其它景观类型。开展景观格局与生态过程关系研究时,不仅需要考虑景观格局的整体效应,更应关注单一景观类型及其格局特征对一些生态过程的指示意义。     

关帝山森林景观异质性及其动态的研究

以４期航片为基础资料,在ＡＲＣ／ＩＮＦＯ支持下,应用地理信息系统（ＧＩＳ）技术,通过景观要素优势度指数、景观多样性指数、景观斑块密度、景观边缘密度、景观镶嵌度指数和景观聚集度指数５类指标,对关帝山林区５０年代末以来的景观异质性及其动态特征进行了全面分析,并介绍了各指标的数据来源和计算方法,分析了各指标的实用性．在ＧＩＳ支持下,上述各指标可以从不同侧面描述和反映景观异质结构特征,用于景观异质性动态变化规律的研究．研究表明,自５０年代末以来,关帝山森林景观受环境异质性、植被自然演替和人为活动的共同控制,总体异质性发生了很大变化,３个时期表现出不同的动态特征．对人为活动频繁的次生林区的森林景观异质性动态变化的基本规律和控制因素进行了讨论     

中性景观模型与真实景观的一致性

采用RULE和SimMap中性景观模型,使其形成模拟景观的图幅大小、景观内各类型数目以及各类型之间的比例等项与真实景观相同,通过不同景观指标对中性模型系列的反应,看其在多大程度上代替真实景观．研究发现,中性景观模型在斑块数、斑块周长、聚集度、蔓延度以及孔隙度等指标所反映的格局特征方面,能很好地代替真实景观,而在校正斑块周长面积比、分维数以及边界分布均匀度等指标所反映的格局特征方面,并不能很好地代替真实景观,说明中性景观模型只能在一定的范围内可以代替真实景观。而不能完全取而代之.