Multiple roles of vertebrate REV genes in DNA repair and recombination

In yeast, Rev1, Rev3, and Rev7 are involved in translesion synthesis over various kinds of DNA damage and spontaneous and UV-induced mutagenesis. Here, we disrupted Rev1, Rev3, and Rev7 in the chicken B-lymphocyte line DT40. REV1-/- REV3-/- REV7-/- cells showed spontaneous cell death, chromosomal instability/fragility, and hypersensitivity to various genotoxic treatments as observed in each of the single mutants. Surprisingly, the triple-knockout cells showed a suppressed level of sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), which may reflect postreplication repair events mediated by homologous recombination, while each single mutant showed an elevated SCE level. Furthermore, REV1-/- cells as well as triple mutants showed a decreased level of immunoglobulin gene conversion, suggesting participation of Rev1 in a recombination-based pathway. The present study gives us a new insight into cooperative function of three Rev molecules and the Polzeta (Rev3-Rev7)-independent role of Rev1 in vertebrate cells.     

The XRCC genes: expanding roles in DNA double-strand break repair

Functional analysis of the XRCC genes continues to make an important contribution to the understanding of mammalian DNA double-strand break repair processes and mechanisms of genetic instability leading to cancer. New data implicate XRCC genes in long-standing questions, such as how homologous recombination (HR) intermediates are resolved and how DNA replication slows in the presence of damage (intra-S checkpoint). Examining the functions of XRCC genes involved in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), paradoxical roles in repair fidelity and telomere maintenance have been found. Thus, XRCC5-7 (DNA-PK)-dependent NHEJ commonly occurs with fidelity, perhaps by aligning ends accurately in the absence of sequence microhomologies, but NHEJ-deficient mice show reduced frequencies of mutation. NHEJ activity seems to be involved in both mitigating and mediating telomere fusions; however, defective NHEJ can lead to telomere elongation, while loss of HR activity leads to telomere shortening. The correct functioning of XRCC genes involved in both HR and NHEJ is important for genetic stability, but loss of each pathway leads to different consequences, with defects in HR additionally leading to mitotic disruption and aneuploidy. Confirmation that these responses are likely to contribute to cancer induction and/or progression, is given by studies of humans and mice with XRCC gene disruptions: those affecting NHEJ show increased lymphoid tumours, while those affecting HR lead to breast cancer and perhaps to gynaecological tumours.     

The mammalian XRCC genes: their roles in DNA repair and genetic stability

Analysis of the XRCC genes has played an important part in understanding mammalian DNA repair processes, especially those involved in double-strand break (DSB) repair. Most of these genes were identified through their ability to correct DNA damage hypersensitivity in rodent cell lines, and they represent components of several different repair pathways including base-excision repair, non-homologous end joining, and homologous recombination. We document the phenotypic effects of mutation of the XRCC genes, and the current state of our knowledge of their functions. In addition to their continuing importance in discovering mechanisms of DNA repair, analysis of the XRCC genes is making a substantial contribution to the understanding of specific human disorders, including cancer.     

The relationship between the roles of BRCA genes in DNA repair and cancer predisposition

The proteins encoded by the breast-cancer-susceptibility genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, have recently been implicated in DNA-repair processes, thereby improving our understanding of how the loss of these genes contributes to cancer initiation and progression. It appears that the role of BRCA1 in DNA repair, which could involve the integration of several pathways, is broader than that of BRCA2. BRCA1 functions in the signalling of DNA damage and its repair by homologous recombination, nucleotide-excision repair and possibly non-homologous end-joining. BRCA2 has a more specific role in DNA repair, regulating the activity of RAD51, which is required for homologous recombination. An improved understanding of the interactions of BRCA1 and BRCA2 with other proteins in large macromolecular complexes is helping to reveal their exact role in DNA repair.     

The ancient and evolving roles of cohesin in gene expression and DNA repair

The cohesin complex, named for its key role in sister chromatid cohesion, also plays critical roles in gene regulation and DNA repair. It performs all three functions in single cell eukaryotes such as yeasts, and in higher organisms such as man. Minor disruption of cohesin function has significant consequences for human development, even in the absence of measurable effects on chromatid cohesion or chromosome segregation. Here we survey the roles of cohesin in gene regulation and DNA repair, and how these functions vary from yeast to man.     

DNA repair and apoptosis]

DNA damage induced by exo- and endogenous agents triggers two opposite mechanisms--DNA repair and programmed cell death. The latter contains a phase of DNA degradation. Both mechanisms compete for DNA as a substrate and for the cell energy supply. The interaction and competition of these processes influence the pattern of cell death (from pure apoptosis to necrosis). Synergetic and competitive relations between DNA-repair and apoptosis are reviewed.     

HIV-1 viral genes and mitochondrial apoptosis

The mitochondrion is an organelle that regulates various cellular functions including the production of energy and programmed cell death. Aberrant mitochondrial function is often concomitant with various cytopathies and medical disorders. The mitochondrial membrane plays a key role in the induction of cellular apoptosis, and its destabilization, as triggered by both intracellular and extracellular stimuli, results in the release of proapoptotic factors into the cytosol. Not surprisingly, proteins from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) have been implicated in exploiting this organelle to promote the targeted depletion of key immune cells, which assists in viral evasion of the immune system and contributes to the characteristic global immunodeficiency observed during progression of disease. Here we review the mechanisms by which HIV affects the mitochondrion, and suggest that various viral-associated genes may directly regulate apoptotic cell death.     

Reovirus-induced apoptosis of MDCK cells is not linked to viral yield and is blocked by Bcl-2.

In this study, we investigated the relationship between reovirus-induced apoptosis and viral growth. Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells infected with prototype reovirus strains type 1 Lang (T1L) or type 3 Dearing (T3D) were found to undergo apoptosis, and T3D induced apoptosis of MDCK cells to a substantially greater extent than T1L. By using T1L x T3D reassortant viruses, we found that differences in the capacities of these strains to induce apoptosis are determined by the viral S1 and M2 gene segments. These genes encode viral outer-capsid proteins that play important roles in viral entry into cells. T1L grew significantly better in MDCK cells than T3D, and these differences in growth segregated with the viral L1 and M1 gene segments. The L1 and M1 genes encode viral core proteins involved in viral RNA synthesis. Bcl-2 overexpression in MDCK cells inhibited reovirus-induced apoptosis but did not substantially affect reovirus growth. These findings indicate that differences in the capacities of reovirus strains to induce apoptosis and grow in MDCK cells are determined by different viral genes and that premature cell death by apoptosis does not limit reovirus growth in MDCK cells.     

大田软海绵酸对FL细胞DNA的损伤及凋亡相关蛋白表达的影响

本文旨在探讨大田软海绵酸对人羊膜细胞DNA的损伤及凋亡相关蛋白表达的影响。实验用0、20、40、608、0、100 nmol/L OA诱导FL细胞4h后,检测DNA损伤程度的彗星实验表明,OA对FL细胞DNA的损伤随染毒浓度的升高而增加。蛋白免疫印迹法显示凋亡相关蛋白Bcl-2、Bax和p53的表达与染毒浓度呈负相关;用100 nmol/L OA分别诱导2h、4h、8h后发现,三种蛋白的表达与染毒时间也呈负相关。由此可知在OA诱导的FL细胞凋亡中,损伤DNA,降低Bcl-2蛋白的表达可能参与了凋亡的部分作用,而Bax和p53蛋白则可能与OA诱导的细胞增殖有关。     

Exonuclease 1 and its versatile roles in DNA repair

Exonuclease 1 (EXO1) is a multifunctional 5′ → 3′ exonuclease and a DNA structure-specific DNA endonuclease. EXO1 plays roles in DNA replication, DNA mismatch repair (MMR) and DNA double-stranded break repair (DSBR) in lower and higher eukaryotes and contributes to meiosis, immunoglobulin maturation, and micro-mediated end-joining in higher eukaryotes. In human cells, EXO1 is also thought to play a role in telomere maintenance. Mutations in the human EXO1 gene correlate with increased susceptibility to some cancers. This review summarizes recent studies on the enzymatic functions and biological roles of EXO1, its possible protective role against cancer and aging, and regulation of EXO1 by posttranslational modification.     

Emerging roles of DNA-PK besides DNA repair

The DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) is a DNA-activated serine/threonine protein kinase, and abundantly expressed in almost all mammalian cells. The roles of DNA-PK in DNA-damage repair pathways, including non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair and homologous recombinant (HR) repair, have been studied intensively. However, the high levels of DNA-PK in human cells are somewhat paradoxical in that it does not impart any increased ability to repair DNA damage. If DNA-PK essentially exceeds the demand for DNA damage repair, why do human cells universally express such high levels of this huge complex? DNA-PK has been recently reported to be involved in metabolic gene regulation in response to feeding/insulin stimulation; our studies have also suggested a role of DNA-PK in the regulation of the homeostasis of cell proliferation. These novel findings expand our horizons about the importance of DNA-PK.     

AP endonuclease paralogues with distinct activities in DNA repair and bacterial pathogenesis

Oxidative stress is a principal cause of DNA damage, and mechanisms to repair this damage are among the most highly conserved of biological processes. Oxidative stress is also used by phagocytes to attack bacterial pathogens in defence of the host. We have identified and characterised two apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) endonuclease paralogues in the human pathogen Neisseria meningitidis. The presence of multiple versions of DNA repair enzymes in a single organism is usually thought to reflect redundancy in activities that are essential for cellular viability. We demonstrate here that these two AP endonuclease paralogues have distinct activities in DNA repair: one is a typical Neisserial AP endonuclease (NApe), whereas the other is a specialised 3'-phosphodiesterase Neisserial exonuclease (NExo). The lack of AP endonuclease activity of NExo is shown to be attributable to the presence of a histidine side chain, blocking the abasic ribose-binding site. Both enzymes are necessary for survival of N. meningitidis under oxidative stress and during bloodstream infection. The novel functional pairing of NExo and NApe is widespread among bacteria and appears to have evolved independently on several occasions.     

Terminally differentiated human neurons repair transcribed genes but display attenuated global DNA repair and modulation of repair gene expression

Repair of UV-induced DNA lesions in terminally differentiated human hNT neurons was compared to that in their repair-proficient precursor NT2 cells. Global genome repair of (6-4)pyrimidine-pyrimidone photoproducts was significantly slower in hNT neurons than in the precursor cells, and repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) was not detected in the hNT neurons. This deficiency in global genome repair did not appear to be due to denser chromatin structure in hNT neurons. By contrast, CPDs were removed efficiently from both strands of transcribed genes in hNT neurons, with the nontranscribed strand being repaired unexpectedly well. Correlated with these changes in repair during neuronal differentiation were modifications in the expression of several repair genes, in particular an up-regulation of the two structure-specific nucleases XPG and XPF/ERCC1. These results have implications for neuronal dysfunction and aging.