Guiding the prioritization of the most endangered and evolutionary distinct birds for new zoo conservation programs

Zoos have played a pivotal role in the successful reinforcement and reintroduction of species threatened with extinction, but prioritization is required in the face of increasing need and limited capacity. One means of prioritizing between species of equal threat status when establishing new breeding programs is the consideration of evolutionary distinctness (ED). More distinct species have fewer close relatives such that their extinction would result in a greater overall loss to the Tree of Life. Considering global ex situ holdings of birds (a group with a complete and well‐detailed evolutionary tree), we investigate the representation of at‐risk and highly evolutionarily distinct species in global zoo holdings. We identified a total of 2,236 bird species indicated by the Zoological Information Management System as being held in zoological institutions worldwide. As previously reported, imperiled species (defined as those possessing endangered or critically endangered threat status) in this database are less likely to be held in zoos than non‐imperiled species. However, we find that species possessing ED scores within the top 10% of all bird species are more likely to be held in zoos than other species, possibly because they possess unique characteristics that have historically made them popular exhibits. To assist with the selection of high priority ED species for future zoo conservation programs, we provide a list of imperiled species currently not held in zoos, ranked by ED. This list highlights species representing particular priorities for ex situ conservation planners, and represents a practical tool for improving the conservation value of zoological collections.     

A global review of the impacts of invasive cats on island endangered vertebrates

Cats are generalist predators that have been widely introduced to the world's ~179 000 islands. Once introduced to islands, cats prey on a variety of native species many of which lack evolved defenses against mammalian predators and can suffer severe population declines and even extinction. As islands house a disproportionate share of terrestrial biodiversity, the impacts of invasive cats on islands may have significant biodiversity impacts. Much of this threatened biodiversity can be protected by eradicating cats from islands. Information on the relative impacts of cats on different native species in different types of island ecosystems can increase the efficiency of this conservation tool. We reviewed feral cat impacts on native island vertebrates. Impacts of feral cats on vertebrates have been reported from at least 120 different islands on at least 175 vertebrates (25 reptiles, 123 birds, and 27 mammals), many of which are listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. A meta‐analysis suggests that cat impacts were greatest on endemic species, particularly mammals and greater when non‐native prey species were also introduced. Feral cats on islands are responsible for at least 14% global bird, mammal, and reptile extinctions and are the principal threat to almost 8% of critically endangered birds, mammals, and reptiles.     

A Global-Scale Evaluation of Primate Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Change

Human-induced climate change poses many potential threats to nonhuman primate species, many of which are already threatened by human activities such as deforestation, hunting, and the exotic pet trade. Here, we assessed the exposure and potential vulnerability of all nonhuman primate species to projected future temperature and precipitation changes. We found that overall, nonhuman primates will experience 10 % more warming than the global mean, with some primate species experiencing >1.5 °C for every °C of global warming. Precipitation changes are likely to be quite varied across primate ranges (from >7.5 % increases per °C of global warming to >7.5 % decreases). We also identified individual endangered species with existing vulnerabilities (owing to their small range areas, specialized diet, or restricted habitat use) that are expected to experience the largest climate changes. Finally, we defined hotspots of primate vulnerability to climate changes as areas with many primate species, high concentrations of endangered species, and large expected climate changes. Although all primate species will experience substantial changes from current climatic conditions, our hotspot analysis suggests that species in Central America, the Amazon, and southeastern Brazil, as well as portions of East and Southeast Asia, may be the most vulnerable to the anticipated impacts of global warming. It is essential that impacts of human-induced climate change be a priority for research and conservation planning in primatology, particularly for species that are already threatened by other human pressures. The vulnerable species and regional hotspots that we identify here represent critical priorities for conservation efforts, as existing challenges are expected to become increasingly compounded by the impacts of global warming.     

Tourism and the Conservation of Critically Endangered Frogs

Protected areas are critical for the conservation of many threatened species. Despite this, many protected areas are acutely underfunded, which reduces their effectiveness significantly. Tourism is one mechanism to promote and fund conservation in protected areas, but there are few studies analyzing its tangible conservation outcomes for threatened species. This study uses the 415 IUCN critically endangered frog species to evaluate the contribution of protected area tourism revenue to conservation. Contributions were calculated for each species as the proportion of geographic range inside protected areas multiplied by the proportion of protected area revenues derived from tourism. Geographic ranges were determined from IUCN Extent of Occurrence maps. Almost 60% (239) of critically endangered frog species occur in protected areas. Higher proportions of total range are protected in Nearctic, Australasian and Afrotopical regions. Tourism contributions to protected area budgets ranged from 5–100%. These financial contributions are highest for developing countries in the Afrotropical, Indomalayan and Neotropical regions. Data for both geographic range and budget are available for 201 critically endangered frog species with proportional contributions from tourism to species protection ranging from 0.8–99%. Tourism''s financial contributions to critically endangered frog species protection are highest in the Afrotropical region. This study uses a coarse measure but at the global scale it demonstrates that tourism has significant potential to contribute to global frog conservation efforts.     

Can an acoustic observatory contribute to the conservation of threatened species?

Observatories are designed to collect data for a range of uses. The Australian Acoustic Observatory (A2O) was established to collect environmental sound, including audible species calls, from 344 recorders at 86 sites around Australia. We examine the potential of the A2O to monitor near threatened, threatened, endangered and critically endangered species, based on their vocal behaviour, geographic distributions in relation to the sites of the A2O and on some knowledge of habitat use. Using IUCN and EPBC lists of threatened and endangered species, we extracted species that vocalized in the audible range, and using conservative estimates of their geographic ranges, determined whether there was a possibility of hearing them at these sites. We found that it may be possible to detect up to 171 threatened species at sites established for the A2O, and that individual sites have the potential to detect up to 40 threatened species. All 86 sites occurred in locations where threatened species could possibly be detected, and the list of detectable species included birds, amphibians, and mammals. We have incidentally detected one mammal and four bird species in the data during other work. Threatening processes to which potentially detectable species were exposed included all but two IUCN threat categories. We concluded that with applications of technology to search the audio data from the A2O, it could serve as an important tool for monitoring threatened species.     

A review on the impacts of feral cats (Felis silvestris catus) in the Canary Islands: implications for the conservation of its endangered fauna

Feral cats have been directly responsible for the extinction of numerous species on islands worldwide, including endemic species of mammals, birds and reptiles. The diet of feral cats in the main habitats of the Canary Islands, as generally occurred on oceanic islands, is mainly composed of introduced mammals, and native species of birds, reptiles and insects. The impact of feral cat upon the endangered species was assessed by evaluating their relative abundance in the cats’ diet and by considering their current conservation status. A total of 68 different preys were identified at species level in all studies carried out in the Canary Islands (5 mammals, 16 birds, 15 reptiles and 32 invertebrates). From all the species preyed by feral cats in the Canary Islands, only four of them are considered threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: one endemic bird Saxicola dacotiae and three endemic giant lizards, Gallotia simonyi, Gallotia intermedia, and Gallotia gomerana. Although some efforts on management control have been carried out, it is necessary to enforce these conservation activities on those areas of Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro where giant lizards are still present. Furthermore some local areas where endangered bird species are highly predated should be protected. Nevertheless, it is important to take into account the presence of other introduced species such as rats, mice or rabbits in order to avoid problems derived from the hyperpredation process and mesopredator release effect.     

All the eggs in one basket: Are island refuges securing an endangered passerine?

Refuges for threatened species are important to prevent species extinction. They provide protection from a range of environmental and biotic stressors, and ideally provide protection against all threatening processes. However, for some species it may not be clear why some areas are refuges and others are not. The forty‐spotted pardalote (Pardalotus quadragintus) is an endangered, sedentary, cryptic and specialised bird endemic to the island of Tasmania, Australia. Having undergone an extreme range contraction over the past century the species is now mostly confined to a few small offshore island refuges. Key threatening processes to the species include habitat loss, wildfire, competition and predation. The ways in which these processes have molded the species’ contemporary range have not been clearly evaluated. Furthermore, the security of the remnant population within refuges is uncertain. To overcome this uncertainty we assessed key threats and established the population status in known refuges by developing a robust survey protocol within an occupancy modelling framework. We discuss our results in the context of planning trial reintroductions of this endangered species in suitable habitat across its former range. We found very high occupancy rates (0.75–0.96) at two refuges and in suitable conditions, the species was highly detectable (p, 0.43–0.77). At a third location our surveys indicated a local extinction, likely due to recent wildfire. We demonstrate that all refuges are at high risk of one or more threatening processes and the current distribution across island refuges is unlikely to secure the species from extinction. We identified large areas of potential habitat across the species’ former mainland range, but these are likely too distant from source populations for natural recolonisation. We propose that establishing new populations of forty‐spotted pardalotes via reintroduction is essential to secure the species and that this is best achieved while robust source populations still exist.     

Habitat shifts of endangered species under altered climate conditions: importance of biotic interactions

Predicting changes in potential habitat for endangered species as a result of global warming requires considering more than future climate conditions; it is also necessary to evaluate biotic associations. Most distribution models predicting species responses to climate change include climate variables and occasionally topographic and edaphic parameters, rarely are biotic interactions included. Here, we incorporate biotic interactions into niche models to predict suitable habitat for species under altered climates. We constructed and evaluated niche models for an endangered butterfly and a threatened bird species, both are habitat specialists restricted to semiarid shrublands of southern California. To incorporate their dependency on shrubs, we first developed climate‐based niche models for shrubland vegetation and individual shrub species. We also developed models for the butterfly's larval host plants. Outputs from these models were included in the environmental variable dataset used to create butterfly and bird niche models. For both animal species, abiotic–biotic models outperformed the climate‐only model, with climate‐only models over‐predicting suitable habitat under current climate conditions. We used the climate‐only and abiotic–biotic models to calculate amounts of suitable habitat under altered climates and to evaluate species' sensitivities to climate change. We varied temperature (+0.6, +1.7, and +2.8 °C) and precipitation (50%, 90%, 100%, 110%, and 150%) relative to current climate averages and within ranges predicted by global climate change models. Suitable habitat for each species was reduced at all levels of temperature increase. Both species were sensitive to precipitation changes, particularly increases. Under altered climates, including biotic variables reduced habitat by 68–100% relative to the climate‐only model. To design reserve systems conserving sensitive species under global warming, it is important to consider biotic interactions, particularly for habitat specialists and species with strong dependencies on other species.     

Highly skewed sex ratios in the critically endangered Taita thrush as revealed by CHD genes

The study of sex-ratio patterns in threatened bird species has yielded crucial information with regard to their conservation and management. In the case of sexually monomorphic species, i.e. species that cannot be sexed by their appearance, DNA-based sexing techniques are increasingly applied. We present data on the sexing of adult Taita thrushes, a critically endangered forest endemic from south-east Kenya. In addition to describing a morphometric trait that can be used to sex individuals directly upon capture, we comment on a remarkable skew in sex ratio that might have important consequences for the long-term survival of the species.     

Ill nature: Disease hotspots as threats to biodiversity

Diseases are part of the natural world, but human activities may affect and disrupt the natural dynamics of diseases, threatening wildlife species and human welfare. We listed the number of species threatened by diseases and compiled their distributional ranges. Based on such data we identify global disease hotspots, regions where disrupted disease dynamics threaten to decimate several species into extinction. The number of species threatened by disease may increase, and climate change may act synergistically increasing the severity of disease incidence in the hotspots, and drive the emergence of new disease hotspots. Until now diseases were thought to play a secondary role in the biodiversity extinction crisis, but the global threat scenario is so dynamic that if we do not bring diseases to the forefront of conservation actions and policies, they may not only bring species into extinction but they may also affect human populations as well.     

黄河流域鸟类多样性现状、分布格局及保护空缺

黄河流域幅员辽阔, 多样的地理气候、植被类型及人类活动塑造了多样化的生物多样性格局。本研究以IUCN与国际鸟盟发布的鸟类分布图层为基础, 同时收集了黄河流域2009-2019年的鸟类实地观测记录, 包括观鸟记录、GBIF数据库、红外相机监测及其他实地调查的鸟类数据, 共得到35,026条鸟类实地观测有效记录。汇总结果显示, 黄河流域记录有鸟类物种662种, 占中国鸟类物种总数的45.81%。这些鸟类分属于23目83科, 其中雀形目物种数最多(384种, 占本目全国鸟种总数的46.83%), 其次为鸻形目(67种, 占50.00%)和雁形目(39种, 占72.22%)。黄河流域受威胁鸟类共计121种, 其中有37种和52种分别在IUCN红色名录和《中国脊椎动物红色名录》中被列为受威胁物种(即评估级别为极危、濒危或易危), 22种和73种被分别列为国家I级和II级重点保护野生动物。这些受威胁鸟种多为地栖性、体型大、营养级高或具有长距离迁徙习性的物种。黄河流域鸟类整体物种多样性由南向北递减, 以黄河上中游四川、甘肃、陕西的高原与山地内鸟种最为丰富, 而受威胁鸟类物种多样性热点区则在黄河中下游, 下游黄河三角洲及邻近平原区为受威胁鸟类最主要集中分布区。黄河流域内48个国家级自然保护区共覆盖鸟种数504种(占黄河流域鸟类总种数的76.13%), 其中受威胁鸟种92种(占黄河流域受威胁鸟种数的76.03%)。区域内国家级自然保护区大多分布在黄河上游, 对黄河下游的受威胁物种覆盖程度较低, 保护空缺较严重。对此, 我们建议着重加强中下游自然保护区建设与能力提升, 增加对中下游受威胁鸟种的保护力度, 在保护策略上应当积极探索高强度土地利用下的多样化保护机制。     

Gap analyses to support ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in Magnolia, a flagship group

Worldwide about one third of all plant species is estimated to be threatened with extinction. Plants are generally under-represented in conservation. However, the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) sets forth 16 targets to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity within a framework for actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Target 8 of the GSPC directs that at least 75 % of threatened plant species be present in ex situ collections by 2020, but this target is far from being met. By analyzing where gaps in ex situ collections and research exist relative to diversity hotspots of threatened species, it is possible to identify and prioritize action. We undertake a gap analysis of ex situ collection needs in the genus Magnolia, a relatively well-known and valuable genus. Results indicate three main areas of biodiversity (China, Vietnam and Colombia) for the endangered Magnolia taxa. The present paper provides a critical overview of recent conservation activities carried out in the genus Magnolia throughout the world, focusing on genetic diversity analyses of the species.     

Using miniaturized radiotelemetry to discover the breeding grounds of the endangered New Zealand Storm Petrel Fregetta maoriana

Identification of breeding sites remains a critical step in species conservation, particularly in procellariiform seabirds whose threat status is of global concern. We designed and conducted an integrative radiotelemetry approach to uncover the breeding grounds of the critically endangered New Zealand Storm Petrel Fregetta maoriana (NZSP), a species considered extinct before its rediscovery in 2003. Solar‐powered automated radio receivers and hand‐held telemetry were used to detect the presence of birds on three island groups in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. At least 11 NZSP captured and radiotagged at sea were detected at night near Te Hauturu‐o‐Toi/Little Barrier Island with the detection of an incubating bird leading to the discovery of the first known breeding site for this species. In total, four NZSP breeding burrows were detected under mature forest canopy and three adult NZSP and two NZSP chicks were ringed. Telemetry data indicated NZSP showed strong moonlight avoidance behaviour over the breeding site, had incubation shifts of approximately 5 days and had a breeding season extending from February to June/July, a different season from other Procellariiformes in the region. Radiotelemetry, in combination with rigorously collected field data on species distribution, offers a valuable technique for locating breeding grounds of procellariiform seabirds and gaining insights into breeding biology while minimizing disturbance to sensitive species or damage to fragile habitat. Our study suggests an avenue for other breeding ground searches in one of the most threatened avian Orders, and highlights the general need for information on the location of breeding sites and understanding the breeding biology in data‐deficient birds.     

Tourism and recreation: a common threat to IUCN red-listed vascular plants in Europe

Tourism and recreation are large industries employing millions of people and contribute over US$2.01 trillion to the global economy. Unfortunately they also have diverse and sometimes severe environmental impacts affecting many species, including those that are rare and threatened. To assess the extent to which these industries threaten vascular plants, we reviewed data in the IUCN Red List for 462 Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable European species. Tourism and recreation were listed as threatening 42 % (194 species) of these species from across 50 families, mostly herbs (70 %). They were listed as threatening plants in 9 of the 10 bioregions in Europe and in 25 of the 40 countries assessed. Popular tourism destinations such as the Canary Islands (41 species) and mainland Spain (40 species) had the greatest diversity of species listed as threatened by tourism and recreation. The most common of these threats were trampling (61 species), plant collection (59), the maintenance/construction of tourist infrastructure (43) and habitat degradation due to the urbanisation of tourist sites (13). Additional species assessments and more research on the impacts of tourism and recreation may add to these values. It is clear that these industries pose an important threatening process on plants in Europe based on the IUCN Red List data and hence deserve greater recognition in terms of research, conservation and management.     

中国受胁鸟类的分布与现状分析

参照《Threatened Birds of Asia》(《亚洲受胁鸟类红皮书》),将其中记载的在中国有分布的物种与《中国濒危动物红皮书·鸟类》的物种进行比较。两者的物种组成有明显差异,仅69种鸟同时出现在两个红皮书中;《亚洲受胁鸟类红皮书》中雀形目鸟类占比例最大,而《中国濒危动物红皮书·鸟类》中鸡形目鸟类占比例最大。两个红皮书中的受胁鸟类均以森林、湿地和灌丛为主要栖息生境,而导致物种受胁的主要原因是人为干扰所造成的栖息地破坏。在地理分布方面,应用Arcview 3.2的数据处理与叠加功能,发现西南山地亚区、东部丘陵平原亚区和黄淮平原亚区以及台湾亚区受胁鸟类物种丰富度较高,其中留鸟在西南山地亚区及其周边地区相对集中,迁徙鸟在东部丘陵平原亚区及其周边地区相对集中。在保护方面,中国的显著重要鸟区中有51个是在自然保护区范围内,但还有6个尚未建立保护区,建议予以保护和重视。作者认为西南山地和台湾、海南地区的受胁鸟类面临更大的灭绝威胁,而恢复和重建退化的生态系统是保护鸟类的重要前提。     

Recovery action for threatened species–an Australian perspective

The history, scope and nature of threats facing endangered and vulnerable species in Australia are reviewed. The Australian Endangered Species Programme was established in July 1989 to address these problems. The planned approach adopted by this programme, including action plans, recovery plans, amelioration of threatening processes and education and public awareness campaigns, is described and explained. Example recovery actions for two threatened Australian birds (Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster and Noisy Scrub-bird Atrichornis clamosis ) are outlined.     

Comparing bird assemblages in large and small fragments of the Atlantic Forest hotspots

The Atlantic Forest (AF) is one of the five most threatened and megadiverse world hotspots. It is arguably the most devastated and highly threatened ecosystem on the planet. The vast scope of habitat loss and extreme fragmentation in the AF hotspots has left intact very few extensive and continuous forested fragments. We compared bird assemblages between small (<100 ha) and large (>6,000 ha) forest remnants, in one of the largest AF remnants in Argentina. We performed 84 point-counts of birds in four large fragments (LF) and 67 points in 25 small fragments (SF). We recorded 4,527 bird individuals belonging to 173 species; 2,632 belonging to 153 species in LF and 1,897 in 124 species in SF. Small fragments suffered a significant loss of bird richness, mainly forest dependent species, but the birds abundance did not decrease, due to an increase in abundance of forest independent and semi-dependent bird species (edge and non forest species) that benefit from forest fragmentation. The bird guilds of frugivores, undestory, terrestrial and midstory insectivores, nectarivores and raptors, and the endemic species of AF were area sensitive, decreasing significantly in richness and abundance in the SF. Terrestrial granivores were the only guild positively affected by forest fragmentation, containing mainly edge species, which forage in open areas or borders including crops. Our first observations on fragmentation effects on bird assemblages in the southernmost Argentinean Atlantic Forests did not validate the hypothesis on pre-adaptation to human disturbances in the bird communities of AF. On the contrary, we observed that forest dependent, endemic and several sensitive bird guilds were strongly affected by fragmentation, putting in evidence the vulnerability to the fragmentation process and the necessity to conserve large remnants to avoid reduction of the high biodiversity of AF birds.     

Conservation genetic management of a critically endangered New Zealand endemic bird: minimizing inbreeding in the Black Stilt Himantopus novaezelandiae

For threatened species with small captive populations, it is advisable to incorporate conservation management strategies that minimize inbreeding in an effort to avoid inbreeding depression. Using multilocus microsatellite genotype data, we found a significant negative relationship between genetic relatedness (inbreeding) and reproductive success (fitness) in a captive population of the critically endangered Black Stilt or KakīHimantopus novaezelandiae. In an effort to avoid inbreeding depression in this iconic New Zealand endemic, we recommend re‐pairing closely related captive birds with less related individuals and pairing new captive birds with distantly related individuals.     

Integrating biogeography,threat and evolutionary data to explore extinction crisis in the taxonomic group of cycads

Will the ongoing extinction crisis cause a severe loss of evolutionary information accumulated over millions of years on the tree of life? This question has been largely explored, particularly for vertebrates and angiosperms. However, no equivalent effort has been devoted to gymnosperms. Here, we address this question focusing on cycads, the gymnosperm group exhibiting the highest proportion of threatened species in the plant kingdom. We assembled the first complete phylogeny of cycads and assessed how species loss under three scenarios would impact the cycad tree of life. These scenarios are as follows: (1) All top 50% of evolutionarily distinct (ED ) species are lost; (2) all threatened species are lost; and (3) only all threatened species in each IUCN category are lost. Finally, we analyzed the biogeographical pattern of cycad diversity hotspots and tested for gaps in the current global conservation network. First, we showed that threatened species are not significantly clustered on the cycad tree of life. Second, we showed that the loss of all vulnerable or endangered species does not depart significantly from random loss. In contrast, the loss of all top 50% ED , all threatened or all critically endangered species, would result in a greater loss of PD (Phylogenetic Diversity) than expected. To inform conservation decisions, we defined five hotpots of diversity, and depending on the diversity metric used, these hotspots are located in Southern Africa, Australia, Indo‐Pacific, and Mexico and all are found within protected areas. We conclude that the phylogenetic diversity accumulated over millions of years in the cycad tree of life would not survive the current extinction crisis. As such, prioritizing efforts based on ED and concentrating efforts on critically endangered species particularly in southern Africa, Australia, Indo‐Pacific, and Mexico are required to safeguarding the evolutionary diversity in the cycad tree of life.     

Scale dependency of two endangered charismatic species as biodiversity surrogates

Charismatic megafauna have been used as icons and financial drivers of conservation efforts worldwide given that they are useful surrogates for biodiversity in general. However, tests of this premise have been constrained by data limitations, especially at large scales. Here we overcome this problem by combining large-scale citizen-sourced data with intensive expert observations of two endangered charismatic species, Blakiston’s fish owl (forest specialist) and the red-crowned crane (wetland specialist). We constructed large-scale maps of species richness for 52 forest and 23 grassland/wetland bird species using hierarchical community modeling and citizen-sourced data at 1, 2, 5, and 10-km grid resolutions. We compared the species richness of forest and grassland/wetland birds between the breeding and non-breeding sites of the two charismatic birds at each of the four spatial resolutions, and then assessed the scale dependency of the biodiversity surrogates. Regardless of the habitat amounts, owl and crane breeding sites had higher forest and grassland/wetland bird species richness, respectively. However, this surrogacy was more effective at finer scales (1–2-km resolutions), which corresponds to the charismatic species’ home range sizes (up to 9.4 ± 2.0 km² for fish owls, and 3–4 km² for cranes). Species richness showed the highest spatial variations at 1–2-km resolutions. We suggest that the agreement of functional scales between surrogate species and broader biodiversity is essential for successful surrogacy, and that habitat conservation and restoration targeting multiple charismatic species with different specialties can complement to biodiversity conservation.